Examine individual changes

'{{Short description|681–1018 state in Southeast Europe}} {{distinguish|Old Great Bulgaria}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2016}} {{Infobox country | native_name = {{Nobold|{{unbulleted list|item_style=font-size:85%;|[[Church Slavonic]]: Блъгарьско Цѣсарьствиѥ<br />[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: Първо Българско Царство}}}} | conventional_long_name = Bulgarian Empire | image_coat = | symbol_type = | image_flag = | flag_border = | flag_type = | year_start = 681 | year_end = 1018 | era = Middle Ages | status = | government_type = [[Autocracy]], [[Absolute monarchy]] | religion = {{ubl|[[Tengrism]], [[Slavic paganism]] <small>(681–864)</small>|[[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] <small>(state religion from 864)</small>}} | common_languages = {{ubl|[[Bulgar language|Bulgar]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Sedlar | first = Jean W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA424| title = East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500| publisher = [[University of Washington Press]] | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0295800646 | page = 424}}</ref>|[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]|[[Byzantine Greek]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Fletcher | first = Richard A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RB5aWgr7l-gC&pg=PA338 | title = The Barbarian Conversion: from Paganism to Christianity| publisher = [[University of California Press]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-520-21859-0| page = 338}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Adrados | first = Francisco Rodríguez |author-link = Francisco Rodríguez Adrados |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx_NjXiMZM0C&pg=PA265 | title = A History of the Greek Language: from its Origins to the Present | publisher = Brill | year = 2005 | isbn = 90-04-12835-2| page = 265}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Curta|2008|pp=350–351}}</ref>|[[Common Romanian]]|[[Old Church Slavonic]]{{Cref2|a}} <small>(official from 893)</small><ref>{{Cite book|author=Florin Curta|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-81539-0|page=177}}</ref>}} | event_pre = [[Asparuh of Bulgaria|Asparuh]] defeats [[Eastern Roman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Ongal]] | date_pre = 680 | event_start = New Bulgarian state recognized by Eastern Roman Empire | date_start = | event1 = [[Christianization of Bulgaria|Christianisation]] | date_event1 = 864 | event2 = Adoption of [[Old Bulgarian]] as a national language | date_event2 = 893 | event3 = [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]] assumes the title of [[tsar]] (emperor) | date_event3 = 913 | event_end = Theme Bulgaria established in [[Byzantine Empire]] | date_end = | p1 = Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty| | image_p3 = [[File:Flag placeholder.svg|20px|link=Byzantine Empire]] | p2 = Old Great Bulgaria| | s1 = Bulgaria (theme) | s2 = Second Bulgarian Empire | image_s1 = [[File:Flag placeholder.svg|20px|link=Byzantine Empire]] | image_map = File:Southeastern Europe Late Ninth Century.png | image_map_caption = First Bulgarian Empire in 850<ref name="The Byzantines">{{cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=Averil |title=The Byzantines|date=2009|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1405198332}}</ref><ref name="Europe. A History">{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Norman |title=Europe. A History |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=954-427-663-7}}</ref><ref name="Medieval Europe">{{cite book |last1=Wickham|first1=Chris|title=Medieval Europe|date=2016|publisher=Yale University press|isbn=978-1405198332}}</ref> | capital = {{ubl|[[Pliska]] (681–893)|[[Preslav]] (893–968/972)|[[Skopje]] (972–992)|[[Ohrid]] (992–1015)|[[Bitola]] (1015–1018)}} | currency = | leader1 = [[Asparuh of Bulgaria|Asparuh]] | leader2 = [[Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria|Ivan Vladislav]] | year_leader1 = 681–700 <small>(first)</small> | year_leader2 = 1015–1018 <small>(last)</small> | title_leader = [[List of Bulgarian monarchs|Monarch]] | deputy1 = | year_deputy1 = | title_deputy = | stat_year1 = 850<ref name="Класика и стил">{{cite book |last1=Rashev |first1=Rasho |title=Българската езическа култура VII–IX в./Bulgarian Pagan Culture VII–IX cтр. 38 |language=bg |date=2008 |publisher=Класика и стил |isbn=978-9543270392}}</ref> | stat_area1 = 400000 | stat_year2 = 950<ref name="Sofia [[File:Theoritical Flag of Bulgaria in 13th century.png | thumb | 220x124px | right]] University">{{cite book |last1=Bakalov |first1=Georgi |title=Средновековие и съвременност/Middle ages and the modern times, p. 222: original quote in Bulgarian: "В средата на 10 век Българската държавна територия покрива площ от 240 000 кв км., което нарежда Дунавска България сред шестте най-големи европейски държави, наред с Византия, Киевска Рус, Волжка България, Франция и Свещената Римска империя."|language=bg |date=2011 |publisher=Sofia University "St Kliment Ohridski" |isbn=978-954-07-2935-0}}</ref> | stat_area2 = 240000 | demonym = Bulgarian }} {{History of Bulgaria}} The '''First Bulgarian Empire''' ({{lang-cu|блъгарьско цѣсарьствиѥ|blŭgarĭsko tsěsarǐstvije}}; {{lang-bg|Първо българско царство)}} was a medieval state that existed in [[Southeastern Europe]] between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded in 680–681 after part of the [[Bulgars]], led by [[Asparuh of Bulgaria|Asparuh]], moved south to the northeastern [[Balkans]]. There they secured [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] recognition of their right to settle south of the [[Danube]] by [[Battle of Ongal|defeating]]{{snds}}possibly with the help of [[Seven Slavic tribes|local South Slavic tribes]]{{snds}}the Byzantine army led by [[Constantine IV]]. During the 9th and 10th century, Bulgaria at the height of its power spread from the [[Danube Bend]] to the [[Black Sea]] and from the [[Dnieper]] River to the [[Adriatic Sea]] and became an important power in the region competing with the Byzantine Empire.{{sfn|Ziemann|2016}} As the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantium's chief antagonist to its north, resulting in [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars|several wars]]. The two powers also enjoyed periods of peace and alliance, most notably during the [[Second Arab Siege of Constantinople]], where the Bulgarian army broke the siege and destroyed the Arab army, thus preventing an Arab invasion of Southeastern Europe. [[Byzantium]] had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual [[Christianization of Bulgaria|adoption of Christianity]] in 864. After the disintegration of the [[Avar Khaganate]], the country expanded its territory northwest to the [[Pannonian Plain]]. Later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the [[Pechenegs]] and [[Cumans]], and achieved a decisive victory over the [[Magyars]], forcing them to establish themselves permanently in [[Pannonia]]. The ruling Bulgars and other [[Thracians|non-Slavic tribes]] in the empire gradually mixed and adopted the prevailing [[Old Bulgarian|Slavic language]], thus gradually forming the Bulgarian nation from the 7th to the 10th century. Since the 10th century, the [[demonym]] ''Bulgarian'' gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, both in literature and in common parlance. The development of [[Old Church Slavonic]] literacy had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the [[South Slavs]] into neighbouring cultures, while stimulating the formation of a distinct Bulgarian identity. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the foremost cultural and spiritual centre of [[Slavic Europe]]. Its leading cultural position was further consolidated with the adoption of the [[Glagolitic alphabet]], the invention of the [[Early Cyrillic alphabet]] shortly after in the capital [[Preslav]], and the literature produced in [[Old Church Slavonic]] soon began spreading north. Old Church Slavonic became the [[lingua franca]] of much of Eastern Europe. In 927, the fully independent [[Bulgarian Patriarchate]] was officially recognized. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]] achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines. Thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the [[Battle of Achelous (917)|Battle of Anchialus]] in 917, the Bulgarians laid siege to [[Constantinople]] in 923 and 924. The siege failed however, and the Bulgars were forced to retreat. The bulgarians suffered a brutal invasion by Sviatoslav I<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatoslav_I</ref> Igorevich, the Grand-Prince of the Kievan Rus <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27</ref> between 967 and 969, that saw the empire vassalised to the Rus. Sviatoslav was killed in 972 however, seeing the empire able to briefly recover, but was unable to reclaim lost territories in Thrace, Romania and Southern Macedonia. Their old rivals, the Byzantines eventually recovered, and in 1014, under [[Basil II]] "the Bulgar Slayer", a crushing defeat was inflicted on the Bulgarians at the [[Battle of Kleidion]]. Basil famously ordered that every 100 of the captured 15,000 bulgarian prisoners be blinded, with the 100th soldier spared one eye to guide the rest back home, forcing their communities to care for them for the rest of their lives. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and the First Bulgarian Empire had ceased to exist. It was succeeded by the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]] in 1185. == Nomenclature == The First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as ''[[Bulgaria]]''<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1930|p=27}}</ref> since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms ''Danube Bulgaria'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Vladimirov|first=G.|title=Danube Bulgaria and Volga Bulgaria|publisher=Orbel|year=2005}}</ref> ''First Bulgarian State'',<ref>{{The Late Medieval Balkans|page=[https://archive.org/details/latemedievalbalk00fine/page/55 55]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ylz4fe7757cC&q=%22first+Bulgarian+state%22|title=A Concise History of Bulgaria|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|page=21|isbn=978-0521616379}}</ref> or ''First Bulgarian Tsardom (Empire)''. Between 681 and 864 the country is also called by modern historians as the ''Bulgarian Khanate'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lknbJSVBKgC&pg=PA14 |title=Bulgaria|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2007|page=14|isbn=978-0-19-820514-2}}</ref> or the ''Bulgar Khaganate'',<ref name="whittow279"/> from the Turkic title of ''[[khan (title)|khan]]''/''[[khagan]]'' borne by its rulers. It is often further specified as the ''Danube Bulgarian Khanate'', or ''Danube Bulgar Khanate''<ref>{{cite book|last=Sinor|first=Denis|author-link=Denis Sinor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ST6TRNuWmHsC&pg=RA1-PA162|title=The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1990|page=62|isbn=978-0-521-24304-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Beckwith|first=Christopher I.|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jG1eHe3y4EC&pg=PA117|title=Empires of the Silk Road: a History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=2009|page=117|isbn=978-0-691-13589-2}}</ref> in order to differentiate it from [[Volga Bulgaria]], which emerged from another Bulgar group. From the country's Christianization in 864 and the assumption of the imperial title by its rulers in 913, the country is also referred to as the ''Principality of Bulgaria''. In English-language sources, the country is often known as the ''Bulgarian Empire''.<ref>{{harvnb|Stephenson|2004|p=18}}</ref> == Background == === The Balkans during the early Migration Period === {{see also|Thracians|Migration Period}} Parts of the eastern [[Balkans|Balkan Peninsula]] were in antiquity inhabited by the [[Thracians]] who were a group of Indo-European tribes.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Webber|first1=Cristopher |first2=Angus |last2=McBride |title=The Thracians, 700 BC – AD 46|url=https://archive.org/details/thraciansbcad00webb|url-access=registration|publisher=Osprey Publishing|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/thraciansbcad00webb/page/n15 14]|isbn=1-84176-329-2}}</ref> The whole region as far north as the [[Danube]] River was gradually incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] by the 1st century AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=12–13}}</ref> The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD and the continuous invasions of [[Goths]] and [[Huns]] left much of the region devastated, depopulated and in economic decline by the 5th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=13–14}}</ref> The surviving eastern half of the Roman Empire, called by later historians the [[Byzantine Empire]], could not exercise effective control in these territories other than in the coastal areas and certain cities in the interior. Nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation but despite these reforms disorder continued in much of the Balkans.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=19}}</ref> The reign of Emperor [[Justinian I]] (r.{{nbsp}}527–565) saw temporary recovery of control and reconstruction of a number of fortresses, but after his death the empire was unable to face the threat of the Slavs due to the significant reduction of revenue and manpower.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=23}}</ref> === Slavic migrations to the Balkans === {{Main|South Slavs}} [[File:Slav-7-8-obrez.png|thumb|Slavic tribes and states in Early Middle Ages]] The [[Slavs]], of [[Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]] origin, were first mentioned in written sources to inhabit the territories to the north of the Danube in the 5th century AD, but most historians agree that they had arrived earlier.<ref name="fine25">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=25}}</ref> The group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into [[Antes (people)|Antes]] and [[Sclaveni]] who spoke the same language.<ref name="fine25"/><ref name="cambr2005134">{{harvnb|Fouracre|2005|p=134}}</ref> The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the second half of Justinian I's reign and while these were initially pillaging raids, large-scale settlement began in the 570s and 580s.<ref name="cambr2005134"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=35}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=28–29}}</ref> This migration is associated with the arrival of the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] who settled in the plains of [[Pannonia]] between the rivers Danube and [[Tisza]] in the 560s subjugating various Bulgar and Slavic tribes in the process.<ref name="cambr2005134"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=29}}</ref> Consumed in bitter wars with the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Sasanian Empire]] in the east, the Byzantines had few resources with which to confront the Slavs.<ref name="fine30">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=30}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fouracre|2005|p=138}}</ref> The Slavs came in large numbers and the lack of political organisation made it very difficult to stop them because there was no political leader to defeat in battle and thereby force their retreat.<ref name="fine30"/> As the wars with Persia persisted, the 610s and 620s saw a new and even larger migration wave with the Slavs penetrating further south into the Balkans, reaching [[Thessaly]], [[Thrace]] and [[Peloponnese]] and raiding some islands in the [[Aegean Sea]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=33–34}}</ref> The Byzantines held out in [[Thessaloniki|Salonica]] and a number of coastal towns, but beyond these areas the imperial authority in the Balkans disappeared.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=36}}</ref> === The Bulgars === {{Main|Bulgars|Old Great Bulgaria}} [[File:Old Great Bulgaria and migration of Bulgarians.png|thumb|left|The Bulgar migrations after the fall of Old Great Bulgaria in the 7th century]] The Bulgars were [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] and the [[Volga region]] during the 7th century. They became known as [[nomadic equestrians]] in the [[Idel-Ural|Volga-Ural]] region, but some researchers say that their ethnic roots can be traced to [[Central Asia]]. They spoke a form of Turkic as their main language.{{sfn|McKitterick|1995|p=229|ps=: "The exact ethnic origins of the Danubian Bulgars is controversial. It is, in any case, most probable that they had enveloped groupings of diverse origins during their migration westwards across the Eurasian steppes, and they undoubtedly spoke a form of Turkic as their main language. The Bulgars long retained many of the customs, military tactics, titles and emblems of a nomadic people of the steppes."}} The Bulgars included the tribes of [[Onogurs]], [[Utigur]]s and [[Kutrigur]]s, among others.{{sfn|Fine|1991|pp=43–44}}{{sfn|Sophoulis|2011|p=89}} The first clear mention of the Bulgars in written sources dates from 480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] (r. 474–491) against the [[Ostrogoths]],<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|p=102}}</ref> although an obscure reference to ''Ziezi ex quo Vulgares'', with [[Ziezi]] being an offspring of Biblical [[Shem]], son of [[Noah]], is in the ''[[Chronography of 354]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=61}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|p=101}}</ref> In the 490s the Kutrigurs had moved west of the [[Black Sea]] while the Utigurs inhabited the steppes to the east of them. In the first half of the 6th century, the Bulgars occasionally raided the Byzantine Empire, but in the second half of the century the Kutrigurs were subjugated by the [[Avar Khaganate]] and the Utigurs came under the rule of the [[Western Turkic Khaganate]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=43}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|p=100}}</ref> As the power of the Western Turks faded in the 600s the Avars reasserted their domination over the Bulgars. Between 630 and 635 [[Khan (title)|Khan]] [[Kubrat]] of the [[Dulo clan]] managed to unite the main Bulgar tribes and to declare independence from the Avars, creating a powerful confederation called [[Old Great Bulgaria]], also known as ''Patria Onoguria'', between the Black Sea, the [[Sea of Azov]] and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name="fine44">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=44}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|pp=244–245}}</ref> Kubrat, who was baptised in [[Constantinople]] in 619, concluded an alliance with the Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] (r. 610–641) and the two countries remained in good relations until Kubrat's death between 650 and 665.<ref name="fine44"/> Kubrat fought with the [[Khazars]] in the east but after his demise Old Great Bulgaria disintegrated under strong Khazar pressure in 668<ref>{{harvnb|Curta|2008|p=351}}</ref> and his five sons parted with their followers. The eldest [[Batbayan]] remained in his homeland as Kubrat's successor and eventually became a Khazar vassal. The second brother [[Kotrag]] migrated to the middle [[Volga]] region and founded [[Volga Bulgaria]].<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|pp=245–246}}</ref> The third brother [[Asparuh of Bulgaria|Asparuh]] led his people west to the lower Danube.<ref name="fine44"/> The fourth one, [[Kuber]], initially settled in Pannonia under Avar suzerainty but revolted and moved to the region of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], while the fifth brother [[Alcek]] settled in central [[Italy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Golden|1992|p=245}}</ref><ref name="whittow270">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=270}}</ref> == History == === Establishment and consolidation === [[File:Early Bulgar Khanate. Zones of tribal control.png|alt=Zones of control by Slavic tribes and Bulgars in the late 7th century|thumb|Zones of control by Slavic tribes and Bulgars in the late 7th century]] The Bulgars of [[Asparuh]] moved westwards to what is now [[Bessarabia]], subdued the territories to the north of the Danube in modern [[Romania]], and established themselves in the [[Danube Delta]].<ref name="fine67">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=67}}</ref> In the 670s they crossed the Danube into [[Scythia Minor (Roman province)|Scythia Minor]], nominally a Byzantine province, whose steppe grasslands and pastures were important for the large herd stocks of the Bulgars in addition to the grazing grounds to the west of the [[Dniester]] River already under their control.<ref name="whittow270"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=88}}</ref><ref name="cambr1995 229">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=229}}</ref> In 680 the Byzantine Emperor [[Constantine IV]] (r.{{nbsp}}668–685), having recently [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)|defeated the Arabs]], led an expedition at the head of a huge army and fleet to drive off the Bulgars but suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of Asparuh [[Battle of Ongal|at Onglos]], a swampy region in or around the Danube Delta where the Bulgars had set a fortified camp.<ref name="fine67"/><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=270–271}}</ref> The Bulgars advanced south, crossed the [[Balkan Mountains]] and invaded [[Thrace]].<ref name="bg92">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=92}}</ref> In 681, the Byzantines were compelled to sign a humiliating peace treaty, forcing them to acknowledge Bulgaria as an independent state, to cede the territories to the north of the Balkan Mountains and to pay an annual tribute.<ref name="fine67"/><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=271}}</ref> In his [[Universal history (genre)|universal chronicle]] the Western European author [[Sigebert of Gembloux]] remarked that the Bulgarian state was established in 680.<ref>"Chronica by Sigebert of Gembloux" in LIBI, vol.{{nbsp}}III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/libi/3/gal/3_042.html p. 42]</ref> This was the first state that the empire recognised in the Balkans and the first time it legally surrendered claims to part of its Balkan dominions.<ref name="fine67"/> The Byzantine chronicler [[Theophanes the Confessor]] wrote of the treaty: {{quote|...&nbsp;the Emperor [Constantine{{nbsp}}IV] signed peace with them [the Bulgars], and agreed to pay them tribute for shame of the Romans and for our many sins. For it was wondrous for faraway and close peoples to hear that he, who made everyone pay him tribute – to the east and to the west, to the north and to the south, had been defeated by these unclean and newly emerged people.<ref name="bg92"/><ref>"Chronographia by Theophanes the Confessor" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/3/gal/3_264.html p. 264]</ref>}} [[File:Balkans about 680 A.D., foundation of the First Bulgarian Empire.png|thumb|Southeast Europe about 680 AD]] The relations between the Bulgars and the local Slavs is a matter of debate depending on the interpretation of the Byzantine sources.<ref name="bg91">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=91}}</ref> [[Vasil Zlatarski]] asserts that they concluded a treaty,<ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1970|p=198}}</ref> but most historians agree that they were subjugated.<ref name="bg91"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=67, 69}}</ref> The Bulgars were superior organisationally and militarily and came to politically dominate the new state, but there was cooperation between them and the Slavs for the protection of the country. The Slavs were allowed to retain their chiefs, to abide to their customs and in return they were to pay tribute in kind and to provide foot soldiers for the army.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=69}}</ref> The [[Seven Slavic tribes]] were relocated to the west to protect the frontier with the [[Avar Khaganate]], while the [[Severians|Severi]] were resettled in the eastern Balkan Mountains to guard the passes to the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="bg91"/> The number of Asparuh's Bulgars is difficult to estimate. Vasil Zlatarski and [[John Van Antwerp Fine Jr.]] suggest that they were not particularly numerous, numbering some 10,000,<ref name="fine68">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=68}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1970|p=188}}</ref> while [[Steven Runciman]] considers that the tribe must have been of considerable dimensions.<ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1930|p=28}}</ref> The Bulgars settled mainly in the north-east, establishing the capital at [[Pliska]], which was initially a colossal encampment of 23&nbsp;km² protected with earthen ramparts.<ref name="fine68"/><ref name="cambr1995 229"/> [[File:Pliska - Gate.JPG|alt=A golden jug|thumb|Part of the [[Pliska]] fortress]] To the north-east the war with the Khazars persisted and in 700 Khan Asparuh perished in battle with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=19}}</ref><ref name="bg106"/> Despite this setback the consolidation of the country continued under Asparuh's successor, Khan [[Tervel of Bulgaria|Tervel]] (r.{{nbsp}}700–721). In 705 he assisted the deposed Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian II]] in regaining his throne in return for the ''[[Zagore (region)|Zagore]]'' region of [[Northern Thrace]], the first expansion of Bulgaria to the south of the Balkan mountains.<ref name="bg106">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=98}}</ref> In addition Tervel obtained the title ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''<ref name="cambr1995 231">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=231}}</ref> and, having been enthroned alongside the Emperor, received the obeisance of the citizenry of Constantinople and numerous gifts.<ref name="bg106"/><ref name="cambr1995 231"/> However, three years later, Justinian tried to regain the ceded territory by force, but his army was defeated [[battle of Anchialus (708)|at Anchialus]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=107–108}}</ref> Skirmishes continued until 716 when Khan Tervel signed an [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 716|important agreement]] with Byzantium that defined the borders and the Byzantine tribute, regulated trade relations and provided for the exchange of prisoners and fugitives.<ref name="cambr1995 231"/><ref name="fine75">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=75}}</ref> When the Arabs [[Siege of Constantinople (718)|laid siege to Constantinople]] in 717–718 Tervel dispatched his army to help the besieged city. In the decisive battle before the [[Walls of Constantinople]] the Bulgarians slaughtered between 22,000<ref>"Chronographia by Theophanes the Confessor" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/3/gal/3_269.html p. 269]</ref> and 30,000<ref>"Chronica by Sigebert of Gembloux" in ''LIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}III, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/libi/3/gal/3_043.html p. 43]</ref> [[Arabs]] forcing them to abandon the undertaking. Most historians primarily attribute the Byzantine–Bulgarian victory with stopping the Arab offensives against [[Europe]].<ref name="fine75"/> === Internal instability and struggle for survival === With the demise of Khan [[Sevar of Bulgaria|Sevar]] (r.{{nbsp}}738–753) the ruling [[Dulo clan]] died out and the Khanate fell into a long political crisis during which the young country was on the verge of destruction. In just fifteen years seven Khans reigned, and all of them were murdered. The only surviving sources of this period are Byzantine and present only the Byzantine point of view of the ensuing political turmoil in Bulgaria.<ref name="fine75"/> They describe two factions struggling for power{{snds}}one that sought peaceful relations with the Empire, which was dominant until 755, and one that favoured war.<ref name="fine75"/> These sources present the relations with the Byzantine Empire as the main issue in this internal struggle and do not mention the other reasons, which could have been more important for the Bulgarian elite.<ref name="fine75"/> It is likely that the relationship between the politically dominant Bulgars and the more numerous Slavs was the main issue behind the struggle but there is no evidence about the aims of the rival factions.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=75–76}}</ref> Zlatarski speculates that the old Bulgar military aristocracy was leaning towards war while other Bulgars supported by the majority of the Slavs were inclined for peace with Byzantium.<ref name="fine76">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=76}}</ref> The internal instability was used by the "soldier Emperor" [[Constantine V]] (r.{{nbsp}}741–775), who launched nine major campaigns aiming to eliminate Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=274}}</ref> Having contained the Arab threat during the first part of his reign, Constantine{{nbsp}}V was able to concentrate his forces on Bulgaria after 755.<ref name="cambr1995 233">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=233}}</ref> He defeated the Bulgarians at [[Battle of Marcellae (756)|Marcellae]] in 756, [[Battle of Anchialus (763)|Anchialus]] in 763 and [[Battle of Berzitia|Berzitia]] in 774, but lost the [[Battle of the Rishki Pass]] in 759 in addition to hundreds of ships lost to storms in the Black Sea. The Byzantine military successes further exacerbated the crisis in Bulgaria, but also rallied together many different factions to resist the Byzantines, as shown at the council of 766 when the nobility and the "armed people" denounced Khan [[Sabin of Bulgaria|Sabin]] with the words "Thanks to you, the Romans will enslave Bulgaria!".<ref name="cambr1995 233"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=116}}</ref> In 774 Khan [[Telerig of Bulgaria|Telerig]] (r.{{nbsp}}768–777) tricked Constantine{{nbsp}}V into revealing his spies at the Bulgarian court in Pliska and had them all executed.<ref name="cambr1995 233"/> The next year Constantine{{nbsp}}V died during a retaliatory campaign against Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=119–120}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=77}}</ref> Despite being able to defeat the Bulgarians several times the Byzantines were able neither to conquer Bulgaria, nor to impose their suzerainty and a lasting peace, which is a testimony to the resilience, fighting skills and ideological coherence of the Bulgarian state.<ref name="fine78">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=78}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=275}}</ref> The devastation brought to the country by the nine campaigns of Constantine{{nbsp}}V firmly rallied the Slavs behind the Bulgars and greatly increased the dislike of the Byzantines, turning Bulgaria into a hostile neighbour.<ref name="fine78"/> The hostilities continued until 792 when Khan [[Kardam of Bulgaria|Kardam]] (r.{{nbsp}}777–803) achieved an important victory in the [[battle of Marcellae]], forcing the Byzantines once again to pay tribute to the Khans.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=122–123}}</ref> As a result of the victory, the crisis was finally overcome, and Bulgaria entered the new century stable, stronger, and consolidated.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=124}}</ref> === Territorial expansion === {{See also|Krum|battle of Pliska}} [[File:Territorial expansion during the reign of Khan Krum (803-814).png|thumb|upright|left|Territorial expansion during the reign of Krum]] During the reign of [[Krum]] (r.{{nbsp}}803–814) Bulgaria doubled in size and expanded to the south, west and north, occupying the vast lands along the middle Danube and [[Transylvania]], becoming [[Europe]]an medieval [[List of medieval great powers|great power]]{{sfn|Ziemann|2016}} during the 9th and 10th century along with the Byzantine and [[Frankish Empire]]s. Between 804 and 806 the Bulgarian armies thoroughly eliminated the Avar Khaganate, which had suffered a crippling blow by the Franks in 796, and a border with the [[Frankish Empire]] was established along the middle [[Danube]] or Tisza.<ref name="fine78"/> Prompted by the Byzantine moves to consolidate their hold on the Slavs in Macedonia and northern Greece and in response to a Byzantine raid against the country, the Bulgarians confronted the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="fine95">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=95}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=234}}</ref> In 808 they raided the valley of the [[Struma (river)|Struma]] River, defeating a Byzantine army, and in 809 [[Siege of Serdica (809)|captured]] the important city of Serdica (modern [[Sofia]]).<ref name="fine95"/><ref name="cambr1995 235">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=235}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=127–128}}</ref> {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 220 | footer = | image1 = 52-manasses-chronicle.jpg | alt1 = A page of a medieval manuscript | caption1 = Khan [[Krum]] defeats the Byzantine Emperor [[Nicephorus I]] in the [[battle of Pliska|battle of the Varbitsa Pass]], ''[[Constantine Manasses|Manasses Chronicle]]'' | image2 = 51-manasses-chronicle krum crop.png | alt2 = A page of a medieval manuscript | caption2 = Khan Krum feasts with the skull cup of Nicephorus after the victory at the Varbitsa Pass, ''Manasses Chronicle'' }} In 811 the Byzantine Emperor [[Nicephorus I]] launched a massive offensive against Bulgaria and seized, plundered and burned down the capital Pliska, but on the way back the Byzantine army was decisively defeated in the [[battle of Pliska|battle of the Varbitsa Pass]]. Nicephorus{{nbsp}}I himself was slain along with most of his troops, and his skull was lined with silver and used as a drinking cup.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=97}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=276}}</ref> Krum took the initiative and in 812 moved the war towards [[Thrace]], capturing the key Black Sea port of [[Nessebar|Messembria]] and defeating the Byzantines once more [[battle of Versinikia|at Versinikia]] in 813 before proposing a generous peace settlement.<ref name="cambr1995 235"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=98}}</ref> However, during the negotiations the Byzantines attempted to assassinate Krum. In response, the Bulgarians pillaged Eastern Thrace and seized the important city of [[Edirne|Adrianople]], resettling its 10,000 inhabitants in "[[Bulgarian lands across the Danube|Bulgaria across the Danube]]".<ref name="fine99">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=99}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=277}}</ref> Krum made extensive preparations to capture Constantinople: 5,000 iron-plated wagons were built to carry the siege equipment; the Byzantines even pleaded for help from the Frankish Emperor [[Louis the Pious]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=138}}</ref> Due to the sudden death of Krum on 14 April 814, however, the campaign was never launched.<ref name="fine99"/> Khan Krum implemented legal reforms and issued the first known written law code of Bulgaria that established equal rules for all peoples living within the country's boundaries, intending to reduce poverty and to strengthen the social ties in his vastly enlarged state.<ref name="Bozhilov 1999 140–141">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=140–141}}</ref><ref name="fine100"/> Krum's successor Khan [[Omurtag of Bulgaria|Omurtag]] (r.{{nbsp}}814–831) concluded a [[Treaty of 815|30-year peace treaty]] with the Byzantines establishing the border along the Erkesia trench between [[Debelt]]os on the Black Sea and the valley of the [[Maritsa]] River at [[Kalugerovo, Haskovo Province|Kalugerovo]], thus allowing both countries to restore their economies and finance after the bloody conflicts in the first decade of the century.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=145}}</ref><ref name="cambr1995 236">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=236}}</ref> To the west the Bulgarians were in control of [[Belgrade]] (whose modern name was first known as ''Alba Bulgarica'') by the 820s, and the northwestern boundaries with the Frankish Empire were firmly settled along the middle Danube by 827.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=153}}</ref><ref name="fine107">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=107}}</ref><ref name="whittow279">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=279}}</ref> To the north-east Omurtag fought the Khazars along the [[Dnieper]] River, which was the easternmost limit of Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=150}}</ref> Extensive building was undertaken in the capital Pliska, including the construction of a magnificent palace, pagan temples, ruler's residence, fortress, citadel, water-main, and bath, mainly from stone and brick.<ref name="fine107"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=153–154}}</ref> In 814 Omurtag began the persecution of Christians,<ref>{{harvnb|Curta|2008|p=xv}}</ref> in particular against the Byzantine prisoners of war settled north of the Danube. [[File:Bulgaria under Presian.png|thumb|upright|left|Bulgaria under Presian]] The expansion to the south and south-west continued with Omurtag's successors under the guidance of the capable ''[[kavhan]]'' (First Minister) [[Isbul]]. During the short reign of Khan [[Malamir of Bulgaria|Malamir]] (r.{{nbsp}}831–836), the important city of Philippopolis ([[Plovdiv]]) was incorporated into the country. Under Khan [[Presian of Bulgaria|Presian]] (r.{{nbsp}}836–852), the Bulgarians took most of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], and the borders of the country reached the [[Adriatic Sea]] near [[Vlorë|Valona]] and [[Aegean Sea]].<ref name="whittow279"/> Byzantine historians do not mention any resistance against the Bulgarian expansion in Macedonia, leading to the conclusion that the expansion was largely peaceful. With this, Bulgaria had become the dominant power in the Balkans.<ref name="whittow279"/> The advance further west was blocked by the development of a new Slavic state under Byzantine patronage, the [[Principality of Serbia (early medieval)|Principality of Serbia]].<ref name="whittow279"/> Between 839 and 842 the Bulgarians waged war on the Serbs but did not make any progress. Historian [[Mark Whittow]] asserts that the claim for a Serb victory in that war in ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'' was wishful Byzantine thinking,<ref name="whittow279"/> but notes that any Serb submission to the Bulgarians went no further than the payment of tribute.<ref name="whittow279"/> The reign of [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]] (r.{{nbsp}}852–889) began with numerous setbacks. For ten years the country fought against the Byzantine Empire, [[Eastern Francia]], [[Great Moravia]], the Croats and the Serbs, forming several unsuccessful alliances and changing sides.<ref name="fine112">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=112}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|pp=238–239}}</ref> Around August 863 there was a period of 40 days of earthquakes and there was a lean harvest, which caused famine throughout the country. To cap it all, there was an incursion of locusts. Yet, despite all the military setbacks and natural disasters, the skilful diplomacy of Boris{{nbsp}}I prevented any territorial losses and kept the realm intact.<ref name="fine112"/> In this complex international situation [[Christianity]] had become attractive as a religion by the mid 9th-century because it provided better opportunities for forging reliable alliances and diplomatic ties.<ref name="whittow280">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=280}}</ref> Taking this into account, as well as a variety of internal factors, Boris{{nbsp}}I converted to Christianity in 864, assuming the title ''[[Knyaz]]'' (Prince).<ref name="whittow280"/> Taking advantage of the struggle between the [[Papacy]] in [[Rome]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]], Boris{{nbsp}}I brilliantly manoeuvred to assert the independence of the newly established [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|Bulgarian Church]].<ref name="whittow283">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=283}}</ref> To check the possibility of Byzantine interference in the internal matters of Bulgaria, he sponsored the disciples of the brothers [[Cyril and Methodius]] to create literature in [[Old Church Slavonic|Old Bulgarian language]].<ref name="fine127">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=127}}</ref> Boris{{nbsp}}I dealt ruthlessly with the opposition to the [[Christianisation of Bulgaria]], crushing a revolt of the nobility in 866 and overthrowing his own son [[Vladimir of Bulgaria|Vladimir]] (r.{{nbsp}}889–893){{Cref2|b}} after he attempted to restore the traditional religion.<ref name="fine119">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=119}}</ref> In 893 he convened the [[Council of Preslav]] where it was decided that the capital of Bulgaria was to be moved from Pliska to [[Veliki Preslav|Preslav]], the Byzantine clergy was to be banished from the country and replaced with Bulgarian clerics, and Old Bulgarian language was to replace the Greek in liturgy.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=130}}</ref> Bulgaria was to become the principal threat to the stability and security of the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Stephenson|2004|p=318}}</ref> === Golden Age === {{main|Golden Age of medieval Bulgarian culture}} {{See also|Simeon I of Bulgaria|Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896|Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927}} [[File:RizMap09.jpg|thumb|Bulgarian Empire during the reign of [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]]<ref name="Europe. A History">{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Norman |title=Europe. A History |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=954-427-663-7}}</ref>{{sfn|Fine|1991}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Curta |first1=Florin |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle ages 500–1200 |date=31 August 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-81539-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rashev |first1=Rasho |title=Българската езическа култура VII–IX в. |date=2008 |publisher=Класика и стил |isbn=978-9543270392}}</ref><ref>Розата на Балканите, Иван Илчев, т.1, {{ISBN|978-6190204244}}</ref>]] The decisions of the Council of Preslav brought an end to the Byzantine hopes to exert influence over the newly Christianized country.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=92}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bakalov et al|2003|p=251}}</ref> In 894 the Byzantines moved the Bulgarian market from Constantinople to [[Thessaloniki]], affecting the commercial interests of Bulgaria and the principle of Byzantine–Bulgarian trade, regulated under the [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 716|Treaty of 716]] and later agreements on the [[most favoured nation]] basis.<ref name="fine137">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=137}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Runciman|1930|p=144}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1972|p=286}}</ref> The new Prince, [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]] (r.{{nbsp}}893–927), who came to be known as Simeon the Great, [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896|declared war]] and defeated the Byzantine army in Thrace.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=93}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=286–287}}</ref> The Byzantines turned for aid to the [[Magyars]], who at the time inhabited the steppes to the north-east of Bulgaria. The Magyars scored two victories over the Bulgarians and pillaged [[Dobruja|Dobrudzha]], but Simeon{{nbsp}}I allied with the [[Pechenegs]] further east, and in 895 the Bulgarian army inflicted a [[Battle of Southern Buh|crushing defeat on the Magyars]] in the steppes along the [[Southern Bug]] River. At the same time, the Pechenegs advanced westwards and prevented the Magyars from returning to their homeland.<ref name="fine139">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=139}}</ref> The blow was so heavy that the Magyars were forced to migrate west, eventually settling in the [[Pannonian Basin]], where they eventually established the [[Kingdom of Hungary (medieval)|Kingdom of Hungary]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=248}}</ref><ref name="fine139"/> In 896 the Byzantines were routed in the decisive [[battle of Boulgarophygon]] and pleaded for peace that confirmed the Bulgarian domination of the Balkans,<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=287}}</ref> restored the status of Bulgaria as a most favoured nation, abolished the commercial restrictions and obliged the Byzantine Empire to pay annual tribute.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=139–140}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1972|pp=318–321}}</ref> The peace treaty remained in force until 912 although Simeon{{nbsp}}I did violate it following the [[Sack of Thessalonica (904)|sack of Thessaloniki]] in 904, extracting further territorial concessions in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=140}}</ref> [[File:Car Simeon Bulharsky - Alfons Mucha.jpg|thumb|alt=a painting depicting Bulgarian Emperor Simeon I|Emperor [[Simeon I of Bulgaria|Simeon I]]: The Morning Star of Slavonic Literature, ''painting by [[Alfons Mucha]]'']] In 913 the Byzantine emperor [[Alexander (Byzantine emperor)|Alexander]] provoked a [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 913–927|bitter war]] after resolving to discontinue paying an annual tribute to Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=143}}</ref> However, the military and ideological initiative was held by Simeon{{nbsp}}I, who was seeking ''[[casus belli]]'' to fulfil his ambition to be recognized as Emperor (in Bulgarian, ''[[Tsar]]'') and to conquer Constantinople, creating a joint Bulgarian–Roman state.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=144}}</ref> In 917, the Bulgarian army dealt a crushing defeat to the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Achelous (917)|battle of Achelous]], resulting in Bulgaria's total military supremacy in the Balkans.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=288}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=149}}</ref> In the words of [[Theophanes Continuatus]] "a bloodshed occurred, that had not happened in centuries",<ref>"Chronographia by Theophanes Continuatus" in ''GIBI'', vol. V, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/5/gal/5_128.html pp. 128]–[http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/5/gal/5_129.html 129]</ref> and [[Leo the Deacon]] witnessed piles of bones of perished soldiers on the battlefield 50 years later.<ref>"Historia by Leo the Deacon" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}V, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/5/gal/5_258.html p. 258]</ref> The Bulgarians built on their success with further victories at [[Battle of Katasyrtai|Katasyrtai]] in 917, [[Battle of Pegae|Pegae]] in 921 and [[Battle of Constantinople (922)|Constantinople]] in 922. The Bulgarians also captured the important city of Adrianople in Thrace and seized the capital of the [[Hellas (theme)|Theme of Hellas]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], deep in southern Greece.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=289}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=100}}</ref> Following the disaster at Achelous, [[Byzantine diplomacy]] incited the Principality of Serbia to [[Bulgarian–Serbian wars of 917–924|attack]] Bulgaria from the west, but this assault was easily contained. In 924, the Serbs ambushed and defeated a small Bulgarian army,<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=259}}</ref> provoking a major retaliatory campaign that ended with Bulgaria's annexation of Serbia at the end of that year.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=154}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Stephenson|2004|p=27}}</ref> Further expansion in the Western Balkans was checked by King [[Tomislav of Croatia]], who was a Byzantine ally and [[Croatian–Bulgarian battle of 926|defeated]] a Bulgarian invasion in 926.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=292}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=260}}</ref> Simeon{{nbsp}}I was aware that he needed naval support to conquer Constantinople and in 922 sent envoys to the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] caliph [[Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah]] in [[Mahdia]] to negotiate the assistance of the powerful [[Arabs|Arab]] navy. The caliph sent representatives to Bulgaria to arrange an alliance, but his emissaries were captured en route by the Byzantines near the [[Calabria]]n coast. The Byzantine Emperor [[Romanos I Lekapenos]] managed to avert a Bulgarian–Arab alliance by showering the Arabs with generous gifts.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=290}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=152–153}}</ref> The war dragged on until Simeon I's death in May 927. By then Bulgaria controlled almost all Byzantine possessions in the Balkans, but without a fleet it did not attempt to storm Constantinople.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=157}}</ref> Both countries were exhausted by the huge military efforts that had taken a heavy toll on the population and economy. Simeon's successor [[Peter I of Bulgaria|Peter I]] (r.{{nbsp}}927–969) negotiated a favourable [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 927|peace treaty]]. The Byzantines agreed to recognize him as Emperor of Bulgaria and the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]] as an independent Patriarchate, as well as to pay an annual tribute.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=370}}</ref><ref name="fine161">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=161}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=292}}</ref> The peace was reinforced with a marriage between Peter and Romanos's granddaughter [[Irene Lekapene]].<ref name="fine161"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=274}}</ref> This agreement ushered in a period of 40 years of peaceful relations between the two powers. During the first years of his reign, Peter I faced revolts by two of his three brothers, John in 928 and [[Mihail of Bulgaria|Michael]] in 930, but both were quelled.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=162}}</ref> During most of his subsequent rule until 965, Peter{{nbsp}}I presided over a [[Golden Age]] of the Bulgarian state in a period of political consolidation, economic expansion and cultural activity.<ref name="stephenson25">{{harvnb|Stephenson|2004|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=292–293}}</ref> === Decline and fall === {{See also|Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria|Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|Battle of Kleidion}} [[File:RizMap10.jpg|left|alt=A map of the Bulgarian Empire in the late 10th and early 11th centuries|thumb|Bulgaria under the rule of Emperor Samuel]] Despite the treaty and the largely peaceful era that followed, the strategic position of the Bulgarian Empire remained difficult. The country was surrounded by aggressive neighbours{{snds}}the Magyars to the north-west, the Pechenegs and the growing power of [[Kievan Rus']] to the north-east, and the Byzantine Empire to the south.<ref name="whittow293">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=293}}</ref> Bulgaria suffered several devastating Magyar raids between 934 and 965. The growing insecurity, as well as expanding influence of the landed nobility and the higher clergy at the expense of the personal privileges of the peasantry, led to the emergence of [[Bogomilism]], a [[Dualistic cosmology|dualistic]] heretic [[sect]] that in the subsequent centuries spread to the Byzantine Empire, northern Italy and southern France (cf. [[Cathars]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=177}}</ref> To the south, the Byzantine Empire reversed the course of the [[Byzantine–Arab Wars|Byzantine–Arab wars]] against the declining [[Abbasid Caliphate]] and in 965 discontinued the payment of the tribute, leading to sharp deterioration in their relations.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=181}}</ref> In 968 the Byzantines incited Kievan Rus' to [[Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria|invade Bulgaria]]. In two years the Kievan Prince [[Sviatoslav I of Kiev|Svyatoslav I]] [[Battle of Silistra|defeated]] the Bulgarian army, captured Preslav and established his capital at the important Bulgarian city of [[Pereyaslavets|Preslavets]] (meaning "Little Preslav").<ref name="fine182">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=182–183}}</ref> In this desperate situation the aging Peter{{nbsp}}I abdicated, leaving the crown to his son [[Boris II of Bulgaria|Boris II]] (r.{{nbsp}}969–971), who had little choice but to cooperate with Svyatoslav.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=184–185}}</ref> The unexpected success of the Rus' campaigns led to a confrontation with the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="fine182"/> The Byzantine Emperor [[John I Tzimiskes]] eventually defeated Svyatoslav's forces and compelled him to leave the Balkans in 971.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=186}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=295–296}}</ref> In the course of their campaign the Byzantines seized Preslav and detained Boris{{nbsp}}II. Initially John{{nbsp}}I Tzimiskes presented himself as a liberator, but Boris{{nbsp}}II was promptly forced to ritually abdicate in Constantinople.<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=296}}</ref> Although at the time the Byzantines controlled only the eastern regions of the country, Bulgaria was proclaimed a Byzantine province.<ref name="fine187">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=187}}</ref> [[File:First Bulgarian Empire (976-1018).png|thumb|Map of Bulgaria under the [[Cometopuli]] dynasty of Tsar [[Samuel of Bulgaria|Samuel]] (976-1018)<ref name=delev>Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.</ref>]] The lands to the west of the [[Iskar (river)|Iskar River]] remained free and the Bulgarians were able to regroup headed by the four [[Cometopuli dynasty|Cometopuli]] brothers.<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=296–297}}</ref> By 976, the youngest of them, [[Samuel of Bulgaria|Samuel]], concentrated all power in his hands following the death of his elder siblings. When in 976 the rightful heir to the throne, Boris{{nbsp}}II's brother [[Roman of Bulgaria|Roman]] (r.{{nbsp}}971–997), escaped from captivity in Constantinople, he was recognized as Emperor by Samuel,<ref name="whittow297">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=297}}</ref>{{Cref2|c}} who remained the chief commander of the Bulgarian army. Peace was impossible; as a result of the symbolic ending of the Bulgarian Empire following Boris{{nbsp}}II's abdication, Roman, and later Samuel, were seen as rebels and the Byzantine Emperor was bound to enforce the imperial sovereignty over them.<ref name="whittow297"/> This led to more than [[Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria|40 years]] of increasingly bitter warfare.<ref name="whittow297"/> A capable general and good politician, at first Samuel managed to turn the fortunes to the Bulgarians. The new Byzantine Emperor [[Basil II]] was decisively defeated in the [[Battle of the Gates of Trajan]] in 986 and barely escaped with his life.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=192}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=369}}</ref> The Byzantine poet [[John Geometres]] wrote of the defeat: {{quote|Even if the sun would have come down, I would have never thought that the [[Moesia]]n [Bulgarian] arrows were stronger than the [[Ausones|Ausonian]] [Roman, Byzantine] spears.&nbsp;... And when you, [[Phaethon]] [Sun], descend to the earth with your gold-shining chariot, tell the great soul of the Caesar:{{Cref2|d}} The [[Danube|Istros]] [Bulgaria] took the crown of Rome. Take up arms, the arrows of the Moesians broke the spears of the Ausonians.<ref name="gibiV320">"Poems by John Geometres" in GIBI, vol.{{nbsp}}V, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/5/gal/5_320.html p. 320]</ref>}} [[File:Fortaleza de Samuel, Ohrid, Macedonia, 2014-04-17, DD 55.JPG|thumb|left|alt=a medieval fortress|[[Samuel's Fortress, Ohrid|Samuel's Fortress]] in [[Ohrid]]]] Immediately after the victory Samuel pushed east and recovered north-eastern Bulgaria, along with the old capitals, Pliska and Preslav. In the next ten years the Bulgarian armies expanded the country south annexing the whole of [[Thessaly]] and [[Epirus]] and plundering the [[Peloponnese]] Peninsula.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=193}}</ref> With the major Bulgarian military successes and the defection of a number of Byzantine officials to the Bulgarians, the prospect of the Byzantines losing all their Balkan themes was quite real.<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=386}}</ref> Threatened by an alliance between the Byzantines and the Serbian state of [[Duklja]], in 997 Samuel defeated and captured its Prince [[Jovan Vladimir]] and took control of the Serb lands.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=193–194}}</ref> In 997, following the death of Roman, the last heir of the [[Krum's dynasty]], Samuel was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria. He established friendly relations with [[Stephen I of Hungary]] through a marriage between his son and heir [[Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria|Gavril Radomir]] and Stephen's daughter, but eventually Gavril Radomir expelled his wife, and in 1004 Hungary participated with the Byzantine forces against Bulgaria.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=195–196}}</ref> [[File:SamuilsDeathBGhistory.jpg|thumb|alt=a page of a medieval manuscript|''Above'': The Byzantines defeat Samuel [[battle of Belasitsa|at Kleidion]]; ''below'': the death of Samuel, ''Manasses Chronicle'']] After 1000 the tides of the war turned in favor of the Byzantines under the personal leadership of Basil{{nbsp}}II, who launched annual campaigns of methodical conquest of the Bulgarian cities and strongholds that were sometimes carried out in all twelve months of the year, instead of the usual short campaigning of the epoch with the troops returning home to winter.<ref name="fine197">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=197}}</ref> In 1001 they seized Pliska and Preslav in the east; in 1003 a major offensive along the Danube resulted in the fall of Vidin after an eight-month siege; and in 1004 Basil{{nbsp}}II defeated Samuel in the [[battle of Skopje]] and took possession of the city.<ref name="fine197"/> This war of attrition dragged on for a decade until 1014, when the Bulgarians were decisively defeated [[Battle of Kleidion|at Kleidion]]. Some 14,000 Bulgarians were captured; it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the remaining hundredth man left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home, earning Basil{{nbsp}}II the moniker "Bulgaroktonos", the Bulgar Killer.<ref name="fine198">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=198}}</ref> When the returning men arrived in Samuel's residence in [[Prespa (medieval town)|Prespa]], the Bulgarian Emperor suffered a heart attack at the grisly sight and died two days later, on 6 October.<ref name="fine198"/> Resistance continued for four more years under Gavril Radomir (r.{{nbsp}}1014–1015) and [[Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria|Ivan Vladislav]] (r.{{nbsp}}1015–1018), but after the demise of the latter during the siege of Dyrrhachium the nobility surrendered to Basil{{nbsp}}II and Bulgaria was annexed by the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=198–199}}</ref> The Bulgarian aristocracy kept its privileges, although many noblemen were transferred to [[Asia Minor]], thus depriving the Bulgarians of their natural leaders.<ref name="fine199">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=199}}</ref> Although the Bulgarian Patriarchate was demoted to the [[Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima and all Bulgaria|Archbishopric of Justiniana Prima and all Bulgaria (Archbishopric of Ohrid)]], it retained its sees and enjoyed a privileged autonomy.<ref name="fine199"/><ref name="whittow388">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=388}}</ref> Despite several major attempts at restoring its independence, Bulgaria remained under Byzantine rule until the [[Uprising of Asen and Peter|brothers Asen and Peter]] liberated the country in 1185, establishing the [[Second Bulgarian Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=290}}</ref> == Government == [[File:Omurtag1.jpg|thumb|alt=A medieval monarch|Khan [[Omurtag of Bulgaria|Omurtag]] was the first Bulgarian ruler known to have claimed divine origin, ''[[Madrid Skylitzes]]'']] The First Bulgarian Empire was a hereditary monarchy. The monarch was the commander-in-chief of the [[Medieval Bulgarian army|armed forces]], a judge, and a high priest during the pagan period.<ref name="angelov170">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=170}}</ref><ref name="koledarov11">{{harvnb|Koledarov|1979|p=11}}</ref> He guided the external policy of the country and could conclude treaties personally or through authorised emissaries.<ref name="koledarov11"/> In the pagan period the title of the ruler was [[Khan (title)|Khan]]. After 864 Boris I adopted the Slavic [[Knyaz]] (Prince), and since 913 the Bulgarian monarchs were recognised as [[Tsar]]s (Emperors).<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=145–148}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=289}}</ref> The authority of the Khan was limited by the leading noble families and the People's Council. The People's Council included the nobility and the "armed people" was gathered to discuss issues of crucial importance for the state. A People's Council in 766 dethroned Khan [[Sabin of Bulgaria|Sabin]] because he was seeking peace with the Byzantines.<ref name="cambr1995 233"/> According to the old Bulgarian tradition the Khan was first among equals, which was among the reasons why Boris I decided to convert to Christianity, as Christian monarchs ruled by the grace of God.<ref name="fine119"/> However, the divinity of the Bulgarian ruler, as well as his superiority over the Byzantine Emperor, were already asserted by Khan Omurtag (r.{{nbsp}}814–831),<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=106–107}}</ref> as stated in the [[Chatalar Inscription]]: {{quote|The [[Kanasubigi]] Omurtag is a divine ruler in the land where he was born.&nbsp;... May God [ [[Tengri|Tangra]] ] grant that the divine ruler may press down the [Byzantine] emperor with his foot so long as the [[Kamchiya|Ticha]] flows...<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=106}}</ref>}} The second most important post in Bulgaria after the monarch was the ''[[kavhan]]'', monopolised by the members of the tentatively known "Kavhan family".<ref name="andreev175">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lazarov|Pavlov|1999|p=175}}</ref> The ''kavhan'' had broad powers and commanded the left wing of the army, and at times the whole army.<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|pp=67–68}}</ref> He could be a co-ruler or a regent during the minority of the monarch;<ref name="angelov175">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=175}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=104}}</ref> the sources mention that Khan Malamir "ruled together with ''kavhan'' [[Isbul]]" (fl. 820s–830s)<ref name="andreev175"/> and ''kavhan'' Dometian is noted as an associate [in the government] of Gavril Radomir (r. 1014–1015).<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=68}}</ref> The third highest-ranking official was the ''[[ichirgu-boil]]a'', who commanded the right wing of the army at war and might have had the role of a foreign minister.<ref name="angelov175"/><ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=70}}</ref> Under his direct command were 1,300 soldiers.<ref name="angelov175"/> Historian [[Veselin Beshevliev]] assumes that the post might have been created under the reign of Khan Krum (r. 803–814), or earlier, in order to limit the power of the ''kavhan''.<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=67}}</ref> Although initially the Bulgarians did not have their own writing system, the presence of numerous stone inscriptions, mainly in Greek, indicate the existence of a chancellery to the Khan that was probably organised in the Byzantine manner.<ref name="beshevliev99">{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=99}}</ref><ref name="bozhilov156">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=156}}</ref> Part of the chancellery's staff might have been Greeks and even monks, despite the fact that the country was still pagan.<ref name="beshevliev99"/> === Social classes === [[File:Simbol of dulo.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=A symbol|The symbol ıYı is associated with the [[Dulo clan]] and the First Empire]] According to an inscription dated from the reign of Khan Malamir (r.{{nbsp}}831–836) there were three classes in pagan Bulgaria{{snds}}{{transl|bg|boilas}}, {{transl|bg|bagains}} and ''Bulgarians'', i.e. the common people.<ref name="beshevliev66">{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=66}}</ref> The nobility were initially known as the ''[[boila]]'' but after the 10th century the word was transformed to ''[[boyar|bolyar]]'', which was eventually adopted in many countries in [[Eastern Europe]]. Each ''boila'' clan had its own totem and was believed to have been divinely established, hence their staunch opposition to Christianity, which was seen as a threat to their privileges.<ref name="fine108">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=108}}</ref> Many of the clans had ancient origin that could be traced back to the time when the Bulgars inhabited the steppes to the north and east of the Black Sea.<ref name="angelov170"/> The ''[[Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans]]'' mentions monarchs of three clans that ruled Bulgaria until 766{{snds}}Dulo, Vokil and Ugain.<ref name="angelov170"/> The power of the principal noble families was greatly crippled in the aftermath of the anti-Christian rebellion of 866, when Boris{{nbsp}}I executed 52 leading ''boilas'' along with their families.<ref name="fine120">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=119–120}}</ref> The ''boila'' were divided into inner and outer boilas and it was among their ranks that the holders of the highest military and administrative posts were selected.<ref name="beshevliev66"/><ref name="angelov172">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=172}}</ref> Most likely the ''outer boilas'' resided outside the capital, while the inner ones were member of the court under the direct influence of the monarch.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=120}}</ref> The {{transl|bg|bagains}} were the second-ranking aristocratic class and were divided into numerous sub-ranks.<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|pp=66–67}}</ref> The presence of two separate classes of nobility is further confirmed in the {{lang|la|Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum}} (Responses of Pope Nicholas I to the Questions of the Bulgarians), where Boris{{nbsp}}I wrote about ''primates'' and {{lang|la|mediocres seu minores}}.<ref name="angelov172"/> Another privileged group were the ''[[tarkhan]]s'', although from the surviving inscriptions it is impossible to determine whether they belonged to the {{transl|bg|boilas}} or to the {{transl|bg|bagains}}, or were a separate class.<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=75}}</ref> The original Bulgar titles and many of the institutions from the pagan era were preserved after the Christianisation of Bulgaria until the very fall of the First Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Biliarsky|2011|p=13}}</ref> The beginning of the 9th century was marked with a process of incorporation of both Slavs and Byzantine Greeks in the ranks of the Bulgarian nobility and privileged classes, which increased the power of the monarch that had been previously curtailed by the leading Bulgar aristocratic families.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=139}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=102–103}}</ref> Since that time certain Slavic titles became more prominent, such as ''[[župan]]'', and some of them mingled forming titles like ''župan tarkhan''.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=154}}</ref> The peasants lived in rural communities known as ''[[zadruga]]'' and had collective responsibility.<ref name="angelov167">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=167}}</ref> The majority of the peasantry were personally free under the direct rule of the central administration and the legislation introduced following the adoption of Christianity regulated their relations.<ref name="angelov167"/> The number of personally dependent peasants bound to nobility or ecclesiastical estates increased since the 10th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=356–357, 365}}</ref> === Administration === Due to the limited remaining sources it is very difficult to reconstruct the administrative evolution and division of the country. Initially the Slavic tribes retained their autonomy but since the beginning of the 9th century commenced a process of centralisation.<ref name="bozhilov156"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=169}}</ref> As Bulgaria's territory steadily expanded, measures against tribal autonomy were deemed necessary in order to achieve more effective control and to prevent separatism.<ref name="angelov153">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=153}}</ref> When in the 820s some Slavic tribes in western Bulgaria, the Timochani, Branichevtsi and Abodriti sought overlordship from the Franks, Khan Omurtag replaced their chieftains with his own governors.<ref name="angelov153"/> The country was divided into ''[[County|comitati]]'', governed by a ''comita'', although this term was used by Western European chroniclers, who wrote in Latin. It is likely that the Bulgarians used the term ''земя'' (''zemya'', meaning "land"), as mentioned in the Court Law for the People.<ref name="angelov247">{{harvnb|Angelov|1971|p=247}}</ref> Their number is unknown, but the Archbishop of Reims [[Hincmar]] mentioned that the 866 rebellion against Boris I was headed by the nobility of the 10 ''comitati''.<ref name="angelov247"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=179}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=165}}</ref> They were further divided into ''[[župa|župi]]'', that in turn consisted of ''zadrugi''. The ''comita'' was appointed by the monarch, and was assisted by a ''tarkhan''. The former had many civil and administrative functions, while the latter was responsible for military affairs.<ref name="angelov248">{{harvnb|Angelov|1971|p=248}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=180}}</ref> One of the few ''comitati'' known by name was [[Kutmichevitsa]] in south-western Bulgaria, corresponding to modern western Macedonia, southern Albania and north-western Greece.<ref name="angelov248"/> === Legislation === The first known written Bulgarian [[Code of law|law code]] was issued by Khan Krum at a People's Council in the very beginning of the 9th century but the text has not survived in its entirety and only certain items have been preserved in the 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia ''[[Suda]]''.<ref name="fine100">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=100}}</ref> It prescribed the death penalty for false oaths and accusations and severe penalties for thieves and those who gave them shelter.<ref name="fine100"/><ref name="angelov145">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=145}}</ref><ref name="Bozhilov 1999 140–141"/> The ''Suda'' also mentioned that the laws foresaw the uprooting of all vineyards as a measure against drunkenness but this claim is refuted in the contemporary sources, which indicate that, after capturing Pliska in 811, the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus{{nbsp}}I found large quantities of wine, and after the final Bulgarian victory Krum drank wine in the Emperor's skull.<ref name="angelov145"/><ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=141}}</ref> Krum's legal code is seen by many historians as an attempt to centralise the state and to homogenize society by putting the different elements under a single code of laws.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=147}}</ref> However, since the text is not preserved its precise aims remain unknown.<ref name="fine100"/> After the conversion to Christianity Boris{{nbsp}}I was concerned with the legal matters and asked [[Pope Nicholas I]] to provide legal texts.<ref name="fine129">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=129}}</ref> Eventually, the ''Законъ соудный людьмъ'' (''Zakon sudnyi ljud'm'', Court Law for the People), was compiled, based heavily on the Byzantine [[Byzantine law|Ecloga]] and Nomocanon, but adapted to Bulgarian conditions and valid for the whole population of the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov|1971|pp=269–270}}</ref><ref name="fine129"/> It combined elements of civil, criminal, canon and military law, as well as public and private law, and included substantive norms and procedural guidelines. The Court Law for the People dealt with combating paganism, testimony of witnesses, sexual morality, marital relations, distribution of war booty, etc.<ref name="fine129"/> To eradicate the residual paganism the law provided that a village that allowed performance of pagan rituals should be transferred in its entirety to the Church, and, should a rich landowner perform them, his lands were to be sold, and the revenue shared among the poor.<ref name="angelov167"/> == Military == {{main|Medieval Bulgarian army}} [[File:Sword of Varbitza, Replica Ratina.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|alt=A replica of a sabre|A replica of a Bulgar sabre found near the town of [[Varbitsa (town)|Varbitsa]]]] After the formation of the Bulgarian state the ruling elite harboured deep distrust towards the Byzantines, against whose perfidy and sudden attacks they had to maintain constant vigilance<ref name="cambr1995 229"/> in all directions. The Byzantine Empire never relinquished its claim over all lands to the south of the Danube and made several attempts to enforce that claim. Throughout the existence of the First Empire Bulgaria could expect Byzantine onslaughts aimed at its destruction.<ref name="whittow280"/> The steppes to the north-east were home to numerous peoples whose unpredictable pillaging raids were also of concern.<ref name="cambr1995 237">{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=237}}</ref> Therefore, military preparedness was a top priority.<ref name="cambr1995 237"/> Guards always stood on the alert and if anyone was to flee during a watch, the responsible guards are killed without hesitation.<ref name="cambr1995 237"/> Before battle, a "most faithful and prudent man" was sent to inspect all the arms, horses, and materiel, and being ill-prepared or readied in a useless fashion was punishable by death.<ref name="cambr1995 237"/> Capital punishment was also prescribed for riding [[Horses in warfare|war horses]] in peacetime.<ref name="angelov341">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=341}}</ref> The Bulgarian army was armed with various types of weapons, the most widely used being [[sabre]]s, [[sword]]s, [[battle axe]]s, [[spear]]s, [[Pike (weapon)|pike]]s, [[dagger]]s, [[lasso|arkans]], and [[bow and arrow|bows and arrows]].<ref name="angelov80">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=80}}</ref> The soldiers were often trained to use both spears and bows.<ref name="angelov80"/> The Bulgarians wore helms, mail armor and shields for defence. The helms were usually cone-shaped, while the shields were round and light. The armor was of two types{{snds}}[[Mail (armour)|wedge riveted mail]] consisting of small metal rings linked together, and [[scale armour]] consisting of small armour plates attached to each other.<ref name="angelov80"/> Belts were very important for the early Bulgarians and were often decorated with golden, silver, bronze or copper buckles that reflected the illustrious origin of the holder.<ref name="angelov80"/> The most important part of the army was the [[heavy cavalry]]. In the early 9th century the Bulgarian Khan could muster 30,000 riders "all covered in iron"<ref name="si23">"Scrptor incertus" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}IV, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/4/gal/4_023.html p. 23]</ref> who were armoured with iron helms and chainmail.<ref name="bozhilov137">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=137}}</ref> The horses too were covered with armour.<ref name="angelov144"/> As the capital, Pliska, was situated in an open plain, the cavalry was essential for its protection.<ref name="koledarov13">{{harvnb|Koledarov|1979|p=13}}</ref> The fortification system of the inner regions of the country was reinforced with several fortified trenches covering huge spaces and supporting the manoeuvrability of the cavalry.<ref name="koledarov13"/> [[File:Bulgarians defeat Byzantines under Krenites and Kourtikios.jpg|left|thumb|alt=A medieval manuscript|A battle scene of the [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896]], ''Madrid Skylitzes'']] The army was well versed in the use of [[Stratagem (deception)|stratagem]]s. A strong cavalry unit was often held in reserve and would attack the enemy at an opportune moment. Free horses would be sometimes concentrated behind the battle formation to avoid surprise attacks from the rear.<ref name="angelov81">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=81}}</ref> The Bulgarian army used ambushes and feigned retreats, during which the cavalrymen rode with their backs to the horse, firing clouds of arrows on the enemy. If the enemy pursued disorganized, they would turn back and fiercely attack them.<ref name="angelov81"/> In 918 the Bulgarians took the capital of the Byzantine theme [[Hellas (theme)|Hellas]] [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] without bloodshed after sending five men with axes into the city, who eliminated the guards, broke the hinges of the gates, and opened them to the main forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Haldon|1999|p=186}}</ref><ref>"Strategikon by Kekaumenos" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}VII, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/7/gal/7_020.html p. 20]</ref> The Bulgarians were also able to fight at night{{snds}}e.g., their victory over the Byzantines in the [[battle of Katasyrtai]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=256}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=288–289}}</ref> The Bulgarian army was well equipped with [[siege engine]]s. The Bulgarians employed the services of Byzantine and Arab captives and fugitives to produce siege equipment, such as the engineer Eumathius, who sought refuge with Khan Krum after the capture of Serdica in 809.<ref name="angelov144">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=144}}</ref> The 9th century anonymous Byzantine chronicler known as ''Scrptor incertus'' lists the contemporary machinery produced and used by the Bulgarians.<ref>"Scrptor incertus" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}IV, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/4/gal/4_023.html pp. 23]–[http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/4/gal/4_024.html 24]</ref> These included [[catapult]]s; [[Scorpio (weapon)|scorpions]]; multi-storey [[siege tower]]s with a [[battering ram]] on the bottom floor; ''testudos''{{snds}}battering rams with metal plating on the top; ''τρίβόλοι''{{snds}}iron tridents placed hidden amidst the battlefield to hinder the enemy cavalry; ladders, etc.<ref name="angelov144"/> Iron-plated wagons were used for transportation. It is known that Khan Krum prepared 5,000 such wagons for his intended siege of Constantinople in 814.<ref name="angelov144"/> Wooden [[pontoon bridge]]s were also constructed for crossing rivers.<ref name="si23"/><ref name="bozhilov137"/> == Economy and urbanism == Agriculture was the most important sector of the economy, the development of which was facilitated by the fertile soils of Moesia, Thrace, and partly, Macedonia.<ref name="angelov339">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=339}}</ref> The land was divided into "lord's lands" and "village lands".<ref name="angelov167"/> The most widespread cereals were [[wheat]], [[rye]] and [[millet]], all of which were staple foods for the populace.<ref name="angelov339"/> [[Grape]]s were also significant, especially after the 9th century. [[Linen]] was used for fabrics and cloths that were exported to the Byzantine Empire.<ref name="angelov339"/> Harvests were prone to natural calamities, such as droughts or [[locust]]s, and there were occasional hunger years. In response to this problem the state maintained reserves of cereals.<ref name="angelov340">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=340}}</ref> [[Animal husbandry]] was well developed, the main stocks being [[cattle]], [[ox]]en, [[Water buffalo|buffalo]]s, [[sheep]], [[pig]]s and [[horse]]s.<ref name="angelov340"/> Animal stocks were vital for farming, transport, military, clothing and food. The importance of the meat for the Bulgarian table was demonstrated in the ''Responses of Pope Nicholas I to the Questions of the Bulgarians'', where seven out of 115 questions concerned meat consumption.<ref name="angelov340"/> Small-scale mining was developed in the Balkan Mountains, the [[Rhodope Mountains]] and some regions of Macedonia.<ref name="angelov340"/> A number of diverse handicrafts thrived in the urban centres and some villages. Preslav had workshops that processed metals (especially gold and silver), stone and wood, and produced ceramics, glass and jewellery.<ref name="angelov304">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=304}}</ref><ref name="fine133">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=133}}</ref> The Bulgarians produced higher-quality tiles than the Byzantines and exported them to the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus'.<ref name="fine133"/> There was large-scale production of bricks in eastern Bulgaria, many of them marked with the symbol "IYI", which is associated with the Bulgarian state, indicating possible state-organised production facilities.<ref name="angelov304"/> After the destruction of the Avar Khaganate in the beginning of the 9th century, Bulgaria controlled the [[Salt mining|salt mines]] in Transylvania until they were overrun by the Magyars a century later.<ref>{{harvnb|Koledarov|1979|p=20}}</ref> The importance of the salt trade was illustrated during the negotiations for alliance between Bulgaria and East Francia in 892 when the Frankish King [[Arnulf of Carinthia|Arnulf]] demanded that Bulgaria discontinue the export of salt to Great Moravia.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=348}}</ref> [[File:Médaillon byzantin - Varna.jpg|thumb|alt=A medieval treasure|A pendant of the [[Preslav treasure]]]] Trade was particularly important to the economy, as Bulgaria lay between the Byzantine Empire, Central Europe, the Rus' and the steppes.<ref name="fine169">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=169}}</ref> Trade relations with the Byzantine Empire were regulated on a [[most favoured nation]] basis by treaties that included commercial clauses.<ref name="fine137"/> The first such treaty was signed in 716 and provided that goods could only be imported or exported when embossed with a state seal. Goods without documents were to be confiscated for the state treasury. The Bulgarian merchants had a colony in Constantinople and paid favourable taxes.<ref name="fine137"/> The relevance of international trade for Bulgaria was evident, as the country was willing to go to [[Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896|war]] with the Byzantine Empire when, in 894, the latter moved the market of the Bulgarian traders from Constantinople to Thessaloniki, where they had to pay higher taxes and did not have direct access to goods from the east.<ref name="fine137"/> In 896 Bulgaria won the war, restoring its status as a most favoured nation and lifting the commercial restrictions.<ref name="fine139"/> Some Bulgarian towns were very prosperous—e.g., [[Pereyaslavets|Preslavets]] on the Danube, described in the 960s as more prosperous than the capital of the Rus', [[Kiev]].<ref name="fine169"/> A contemporary chronicle lists the main trade partners and chief imports to Bulgaria. The country imported gold, silks, wine and fruits from the Byzantine Empire, silver and horses from Hungary and Bohemia, furs, honey, wax and slaves from the Rus'.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=183–184}}</ref> There were commercial ties with Italy and the [[Middle East]] as well.<ref name="angelov298">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=298}}</ref> The First Bulgarian Empire did not mint coins, and taxes were paid in kind.<ref name="Angelov et al 1981 345">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=345}}</ref><ref name="fine170">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=170}}</ref> It is not known whether they were based on land or on person, or both. In addition to the taxes the peasantry must have had other obligations, such as [[corvée|building and maintaining infrastructure]] and defences, as well as providing food and materiel to the army.<ref name="fine170"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=342}}</ref> The Arab writer [[Al-Masudi]] noted that instead of money the Bulgarians used cows and sheep to buy goods.<ref name="Angelov et al 1981 345"/> The density of the network of towns was high. The economic historian [[Paul Bairoch]] estimated that in 800 Pliska had 30,000 inhabitants and, by c. 950, Preslav had some 60,000, making it the largest city in non-Muslim Europe, save Constantinople.<ref name="bairoch">{{cite book|last=Bairoch|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Bairoch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cg7JYZO_nEMC|title=Cities and Economic Development|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|year=1988|isbn=978-0226034669|page=123}}</ref> In comparison, the largest cities in contemporary France and Italy did not reach 30,000 and 50,000 respectively.<ref name="bairoch"/> Alongside the two capitals existed other prominent urban centres, making Bulgaria the most urbanised region in Christian Europe at the time along with Italy.<ref name="bairoch"/> According to contemporary chronicles there were 80 towns in the region of the lower Danube alone.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=350}}</ref> Surviving sources list more than 100 settlements in the western part of the Empire, where the Bulgarian Orthodox Church possessed properties.<ref name="angelov357">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=357}}</ref> The larger urban centres consisted of an inner and an outer town. The inner town would be encircled with stone walls and had administrative and defence functions, while the outer town, usually unprotected, was the centre of economic activities with markets, workshops, vineyards, gardens and dwellings for the populace.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=351}}</ref> However, as elsewhere in the [[Early Middle Ages]], the country remained predominantly rural. == Religion == === Pagan Bulgaria === [[File:Ilya_Repin_-_Sadko_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|alt=|thumb|[[Slavic paganism|Slavic mythology]]: ''[[Sadko (painting)|Sadko]]'' (1876) by [[Ilya Repin]]]] [[File:Rosette from Pliska.svg|thumb|alt=A rosette|The [[Pliska rosette]] dated from the pagan period has seven fingers representing the [[Classical planet]]s]] For almost two centuries after its creation, the Bulgarian state remained pagan. The Bulgars and the Slavs continued to practice their indigenous religions. The Bulgar religion was monotheistic, linked to the cult to [[Tengri|Tangra]], the God of the Sky.<ref name="angelov193">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=193}}</ref><ref name="whittow282">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=282}}</ref> The worship of Tangra is proven by an inscription that reads "Kanasubigi Omurtag, a divine ruler&nbsp;... performed sacrifice to God Tangra".<ref>{{harvnb|Beshevliev|1992|p=132}}</ref> The ruling Khan had an important place in the religious life: he was the high priest and performed rituals.<ref name="angelov170" /> A large sanctuary dedicated to the cult of Tangra existed near the modern village of [[Madara (village)|Madara]].<ref name="angelov193" /> The Bulgars practised [[shamanism]], believed in magic and charms, and performed various rituals.<ref name="angelov193" /> Some of the rituals were described by the Byzantines after the "most Christian" ruler [[Leo V the Armenian|Leo V]] had to pour out water on the ground from a cup, personally turn round horse saddles, touch triple bridle, lift grass high above the ground and cut up dogs as witnesses during the ceremony of the signing of the [[Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 815]].<ref name="andreev58">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=58}}</ref> The pouring of water was a reminder that if the oath is broken, blood would pour out. In the same sense can be explained the turning of the saddle{{snds}}a warning that the violator would not be able to ride or would fall dead from his horse during battle. The triple bridle symbolised the toughness of the agreement and the lifting of grass reminded that no grass would remain in the enemy country if the peace was broken. The sacrifice of dogs was a common custom among the Turkic peoples which further strengthened the treaty.<ref name="andreev58" /> The Slavs worshiped numerous deities. The supreme god was [[Perun]], the god of thunder and lightning.<ref name="andreev54">{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=54}}</ref> Perun was the only god mentioned (though not by name) by the first authoritative reference to the [[Slavic mythology]] in written history, the 6th-century Byzantine historian [[Procopius]], who described the Slavs that settled south of the Danube. Procopius noted that they also worshipped rivers and believed in [[nymph]]s.<ref name="andreev54"/> A number of mythological beings from the Slavic pantheon have persisted in Bulgarian folklore to the present, such as {{transl|bg|italic=no|[[Samodiva (mythology)|samodiva]]s}}, {{transl|bg|italic=no|[[Ala (demon)|hala]]s}}, {{transl|bg|italic=no|[[Supernatural beings in Slavic folklore|vilas]]}}, {{transl|bg|italic=no|[[rusalka]]s}}, [[slavic dragon]]s, etc. During sacrifices the Slavs performed [[divination]]s. After the adoption of Christianity the worship of Perun merged with the cult of Saint [[Elijah]].<ref name="andreev54"/> [[File:Bulgars.jpg|thumb|alt=a page of a medieval manuscript|Bulgarian soldiers kill Christians during the persecutions, ''[[Menologion of Basil II]]'']] Christianity was practised in Bulgaria throughout the whole pagan period. Its dissemination among the populace increased as a result of the successful wars of Khan Krum in the beginning of the 9th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=107–108}}</ref> Krum employed many Byzantine Christians{{snds}}Greeks, Armenians and Slavs{{snds}}in his military and administration; some of them served as deputies of the ''kavhan'' and the ''ichirgu-boila''.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=103–105}}</ref> Tens of thousands Byzantines were resettled across Bulgaria, mainly beyond the Danube River to protect the north-eastern borders, so that they could face non-Byzantines.<ref name="fine105">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=105}}</ref> Many of them, however, maintained clandestine links with the Byzantine court which fuelled the traditional distrust of the Bulgarian elite and resulted in a large-scale persecution of Christianity under the Khans Omurtag and Malamir. Omurtag and the nobility saw the Christians as Byzantine agents and felt that this religion, with its hierarchy based in Byzantium, was a threat to Bulgarian independence.<ref name="fine108"/> There were some executions, including two of the five ''strategoi'' who served under Krum, Leo and John, the metropolitan of Adrianople, the bishop of Debeltos, etc.<ref name="fine108"/><ref name="bozhilov147">{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=147}}</ref> The list of the martyred Christians included Bulgar (Asfer, Kuberg) and Slav names.<ref name="bozhilov147"/> The dismissive attitude of the Christians towards the pagans was insulting to the Bulgarian elite. In a conversation with a Byzantine Christian, Omurtag told him: "Do not humiliate our gods, for their power is great. As a proof, we who worship them, have conquered the whole Roman state".<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=147–148}}</ref> Yet, despite all measures, Christianity continued to spread,<ref name="fine108"/> reaching the members of the Khan's own family. Omurtag's eldest son [[Enravota]], seen as pro-Christian, was disinherited and eventually converted to Christianity. After refusing to renounce his faith, he was executed by orders of his brother Malamir c. 833 and became the first Bulgarian saint.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|pp=156–157}}</ref> The attitude of the Bulgarian rulers to Christianity is seen in the [[Presian Inscription|Philippi Inscription]] of Khan Presian: {{quote|If someone seeks the truth, God watches. And if one lies, God watches. The Bulgarians did many good things to the Christians [the Byzantines] and the Christians forgot, but God watches.<ref>{{harvnb|Bozhilov|Gyuzelev|1999|p=159}}</ref>}} === Christianization === {{main|Christianization of Bulgaria}} By 863 Presian's successor Khan Boris{{nbsp}}I had decided to accept Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=117}}</ref> The sources do not mention the reasons behind this decision but there were several political rationales that he had considered. As Christianity was spreading further into Europe in the 9th century the pagan countries found themselves encircled by Christian powers which could use religion as an acceptable excuse for aggression.<ref name="whittow280"/> Conversion, on the other hand, would establish the country as an equal international partner.<ref name="whittow280"/> There is evidence that Bulgaria had contacts with the Muslim world as well{{snds}}either directly or through [[Volga Bulgaria]], which had adopted [[Islam]] at about the same time{{snds}}but Bulgaria was too far away from any Muslim country that could be of political benefit, and a large part of the population had already converted to Christianity.<ref>{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|pp=280–281}}</ref> Furthermore, the Christian doctrine would cement the monarch's position high above the nobility as an [[Autocracy|autocrat]], being ruler "by the grace of God" and God's representative on Earth.<ref>{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=240}}</ref><ref name="fine118">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=118}}</ref> Moreover, Christianity presented excellent opportunity to firmly consolidate both Bulgars and Slavs as a single Bulgarian people under a common religion.<ref name="fine118"/> [[File:Baptism of the Preslav Court.jpg|alt=A painting depicting baptism|thumb|Baptism of Boris I and his court, ''painting by Nikolai Pavlovich'']] In 863 Boris{{nbsp}}I sought a mission from [[East Francia]] rather than from the Byzantine Empire. He had an alliance with the Eastern Franks since 860 and was aware that the larger distance between the two countries was an obstacle for them to yield direct influence on the future Bulgarian Church.<ref name="fine118"/> He was fully aware that as a neighbour Byzantium would try to interfere with Bulgarian matters.<ref name="fine118"/> Indeed, the Byzantine Empire was determined to place the Bulgarian Church under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople because it hoped it could serve as leverage to influence Bulgarian policies, and to prevent Bulgaria from becoming a military tool of the Papacy to enforce the Pope's wishes on the Empire.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=116}}</ref> Upon learning about Boris{{nbsp}}I's intentions the Byzantine Emperor [[Michael III]] invaded Bulgaria. At the time the Bulgarian army was engaged in warfare against Great Moravia to the north-east and Boris{{nbsp}}I agreed to negotiate.<ref name="whittow282"/><ref name="fine118"/> The Byzantines' only demand was that Boris{{nbsp}}I adopt Orthodox Christianity and to accept Byzantine clergy to evangelise the population.<ref name="fine118"/> Boris I conceded and was baptised in 864, taking the name of his godfather, Emperor Michael.<ref name="whittow282"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=118–119}}</ref> The highest posts in the newly established Bulgarian Church were held by Byzantines who preached in Greek. Aware of the dangers that the spiritual dependency on the Byzantine Empire could pose for Bulgaria's independence, Boris{{nbsp}}I was determined to ensure the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church under a Patriarch.<ref name="fine120"/> Since the Byzantines were reluctant to grant any concessions Boris I took advantage on the ongoing rivalry between the Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Papacy in Rome in order to prevent either of them from exerting religious influence on his lands.<ref name="fine120"/><ref name="whittow283"/> In 866 he sent a delegation to [[Rome]] under the high-ranking official [[Peter (diplomat)|Peter]] declaring his desire to accept Christianity in accordance with the Western rites along with 115 questions to [[Pope Nicholas I]]. The Pope's detailed answers to Boris{{nbsp}}I's questions were delivered by two bishops heading a mission to facilitate the conversion of the Bulgarian people.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=121}}</ref> However, neither Nicolas{{nbsp}}I nor his successor [[Pope Adrian II|Adrian II]] agreed to recognize an autonomous Bulgarian Church, which cooled the relations between the two sides.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=124}}</ref> Bulgaria's shift towards Rome on the other hand, made the Byzantines much more conciliatory. In 870, at the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople (Roman Catholic)|Fourth Council of Constantinople]], the Bulgarian Church was recognized as an [[Autonomy|autocephalous]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] under the supreme direction of the Patriarch of Constantinople.<ref name="fine125">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=125}}</ref><ref name="whittow284">{{harvnb|Whittow|1996|p=284}}</ref> The adoption of Christianity was met with opposition by large numbers of the nobility. In 866 Boris{{nbsp}}I faced a major rebellion of the ''boila'' from all parts of the country. The insurgency was crushed and 52 leading ''boilas'' were executed along with their whole kin.<ref name="fine119"/><ref>{{harvnb|McKitterick|1995|p=241}}</ref> After Boris{{nbsp}}I abdicated in 889 his successor and eldest son [[Vladimir of Bulgaria|Vladimir]] (r.{{nbsp}}889–893) attempted to restore paganism but his father took arms against him and had him deposed and blinded.<ref name="fine119"/> === Bulgarian Orthodox Church === [[File:Saint Clement of Ohrid (icon, 13th-14th century).jpg|alt=A medieval icon|thumb|A medieval icon of Saint [[Clement of Ohrid]], a high-ranking official of the Bulgarian Church, scholar, writer and enlightener of the Bulgarians and the Slavs]] Around 870 the Bulgarian Church became an autonomous archbishopric.<ref name="whittow284"/> The decree of autonomy under the nominal ecclesiastical jurisdiction of Constantinople was far greater than could possibly have been achieved under the Papacy.<ref name="fine125"/> Following the Fourth Council of Constantinople the Byzantine clergy was re-admitted to Bulgaria and allowed to preach in Greek.<ref name="fine125"/> However, as a result of the [[Council of Preslav]] in 893 Old Bulgarian was declared the official language of the state and the Church and the Greek-speaking Byzantine priests once again had to leave the country. Thus, from that point, the church was entirely staffed by Bulgarians.<ref name="fine134">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=134}}</ref> Boris{{nbsp}}I's successor Simeon{{nbsp}}I was not content to leave the Bulgarian Church as an archbishopric and was determined to raise it to a patriarchate, in light of his own ambition to become an emperor. He was well acquainted with the Byzantine imperial tradition that the autocrat must have a patriarch and there could be no empire without one.<ref name="zlatarski389">{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1972|p=389}}</ref> In the aftermath of his remarkable triumph over the Byzantines in the battle of Achelous, in 918 he convened a council and elevated Archbishop [[Leontius of Bulgaria|Leontius]] to patriarch.<ref name="zlatarski389"/> The decisions of that council were not recognized by the Byzantines<ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1972|pp=390–391}}</ref> but as a result of the Bulgarian victory in the war they eventually recognized Leontius' successor [[Demetrius of Bulgaria|Demetrius]] as Patriarch of Bulgaria in 927.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lalkov|1996|p=108}}</ref> It was the first Patriarchate officially accepted, apart from the ancient [[Pentarchy]]. It is likely that the seat of the Patriarchate was in the city of [[Silistra|Drastar]] on the Danube River rather than in the capital Preslav.<ref>{{harvnb|Zlatarski|1972|pp=507–508}}</ref> In the late 10th century the Bulgarian Patriarchate included the following dioceses: [[Ohrid]], [[Kastoria|Kostur]], Glavinitsa (in modern southern Albania), [[Almopia|Maglen]], [[Pelagonia]], [[Strumica|Strumitsa]], Morovizd (in modern northern Greece), [[Kyustendil|Velbazhd]], [[Sofia|Serdica]], [[Braničevo (region)|Braničevo]], [[Niš]], [[Belgrade]], [[Sirmium|Srem]], [[Skopje]], [[Prizren]], [[Lipljan]], [[Servia, Greece|Servia]], [[Silistra|Drastar]], [[Edessa, Greece|Voden]], [[Stari Ras|Ras]], [[Çermenikë|Chernik]], [[Himarë (town)|Himara]], [[Dropull|Drinopol]], [[Buthrotum|Butrint]], [[Ioannina|Yanina]], [[Petra, Pieria|Petra]] and [[Kalabaka|Stag]].<ref name="angelov357"/><ref>"Charters of Basil II" in ''GIBI'', vol.{{nbsp}}VI, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, [http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/6/gal/6_041.html pp. 41]–[http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/6/gal/6_047.html pp. 47]</ref> After the fall of the eastern parts of the empire under Byzantine occupation in 971 the seat of the Patriarchate was relocated to [[Ohrid]] in the west.<ref name="whittow297"/><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=191–192}}</ref> With the final conquest of Bulgaria in 1018 the Patriarchate was demoted to an [[Archbishopric of Ohrid|archbishopric]] but retained many privileges. It kept control of all existing episcopal sees, the seat remained in Ohrid and its titular, the Bulgarian [[John of Debar]], kept his office. Furthermore, the Bulgarian archbishopric was given a special position{{snds}}it was placed directly under the emperor rather than under the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.<ref name="fine199"/><ref name="whittow388"/> [[Monasticism]] grew steadily and the monasteries quickly became major landowners with a large population of peasants living on their estates.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=168}}</ref> It developed further under the reign of Emperor Peter I, accompanied by the augmentation of their properties.<ref name="fine169"/> Many high-ranking nobles and members of the ruling family tonsured and died as monks, including Boris I, his brother [[Doks of Bulgaria|Doks]], Peter I, the ''ichirgu-boila'' [[Mostich]], etc.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=234}}</ref> The growing opulence of monastic life led to an increase of asceticism among more pious monks. One of them, [[John of Rila]], became a hermit in the [[Rila]] Mountains and his virtues soon attracted a number of followers,<ref name="fine169"/> who founded the renowned [[Rila Monastery]] after his death. He preached about living in harmony and stressed the value of manual labour and the need the monks never to aspire to riches and power.<ref name="fine169"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=375}}</ref> John of Rila was revered as a saint while he was still alive and eventually became patron of the Bulgarian people. In the 10th century Bulgarian clerics established connections with the emerging Christian communities in the Rus'.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=185}}</ref> Bulgaria seems to had been an established centre from where the small number of [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] Christians obtained clergy and liturgical texts.<ref name="fine187"/> As a result of the Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria many of his soldiers were influenced by Christianity and maintained that interest after their return. The connections between Bulgarians and [[Ruthenians]] must be considered an important background to the official [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|conversion to Christianity of Kievan Rus']] in 988.<ref name="fine187"/> === Bogomilism === {{main|Bogomilism}} [[File:Bogomilist expansion.svg|alt=A map of the Bogomilist expansion in Europe|thumb|Expansion of [[Bogomilism]] in medieval Europe]] During the reign of Emperor Peter{{nbsp}}I (r.{{nbsp}}927–969) a [[Heresy|heretical]] movement known as [[Bogomilism]] arose in Bulgaria. The heresy was named after its founder the priest [[Bogomil (priest)|Bogomil]] whose name can be translated as dear (''mil'') to God (''Bog''). The main sources about Bogomilism in Bulgaria come from a letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch [[Theophylact of Constantinople]] to Peter I (c.{{nbsp}}940), a treatise by [[Cosmas the Priest]] (c.{{nbsp}}970) and the anti-Bogomil council of Emperor [[Boril of Bulgaria]] (1211).<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=172}}</ref> Bogomilism was a [[Christian Gnosticism|neo-Gnostic]] and [[Dualistic cosmology|dualist]] sect that believed that God had two sons, [[Jesus Christ]] and [[Satan]], that represented the two principles [[good and evil]].<ref name="fine176">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=176}}</ref> God had created light and the invisible world, while Satan rebelled and created darkness, the material world and man.<ref name="fine176"/><ref name="Kazhdan301">{{harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=301}}</ref> Therefore, they rejected marriage, reproduction, the Church, the [[Old Testament]], the Cross, etc.<ref name="fine173">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=173}}</ref> The Bogomils were divided into several categories, led by the ''perfecti'' (the perfect ones) that never married, consumed no meat and wine and preached the gospel. Women too could become ''perfecti''.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=383, 387}}</ref> The other two categories were the ''believers'', who had to adopt and follow most of the Bogomil moral ethics, and the ''listeners'', who were not required to change their lifestyle.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=385}}</ref> The Bogomils were described by Cosmas as looking docile, modest and silent from the outside, but being hypocrites and ravenous wolves in the inside.<ref name="Kazhdan301"/><ref name="fine173"/> The Bulgarian Orthodox Church condemned the teachings of Bogomilism. Members of the sect were persecuted by the state authorities as well; the Bogomils preached civil disobedience because they considered the state—as with anything earthly—to be linked with Satan.<ref name="Kazhdan301"/> The sect could not be eradicated and from Bulgaria it eventually spread to the rest of the Balkans, the Byzantine Empire, southern France and northern Italy. In certain regions of Western Europe the heresy flourished under different names{{snds}}[[Catharism|Cathars]], Albigensians, Patarins{{snds}}until the 14th century.<ref name="fine176"/><ref name="Kazhdan301"/> == Formation of Bulgarian nationality == The Bulgarian state existed before the formation of the [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] [[people]].<ref name="fine129"/> Prior to the establishment of the Bulgarian state the Slavs had mingled with the native Thracian population.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=261}}</ref> The population and the density of the settlements increased after 681 and the differences among the individual Slavic tribes gradually disappeared as communications became regular among the regions of the country.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=262}}</ref> By the second half of the 9th century, [[Bulgars]] and [[Slavs]], and [[Romanization (cultural)|romanized]] or [[Hellenization|hellenized]] [[Thracians]] had lived together for almost two centuries and the numerous Slavs were well on the way to assimilating the Thracians and the Bulgars.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=264}}</ref><ref name="fine128">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=128}}</ref> Many Bulgars had already started to use the Slavic [[Old Bulgarian]] language while the [[Bulgar language]] of the ruling caste gradually died out leaving only certain words and phrases.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=270}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Pounds|first=Normal J. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=owY4AAAAIAAJ&q=bulgarians+thracians+slavs+bulgars&pg=PA179|title=An historical geography of Europe, 450 B.C. – A.D. 1330|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=1973|isbn=0-521-29126-7|page=179}}</ref><ref name="fine68"/> The [[Christianization of Bulgaria]], the establishment of Old Bulgarian as a language of the state and the church under [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]], and the creation of the [[Cyrillic script]] in the country, were the main means to the final formation of the Bulgarian [[nation]] in the 9th century; this included [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], where the Bulgarian khan, [[Kuber]], established a state existing in parallel with Khan [[Asparuh of Bulgaria|Asparuh]]'s Bulgarian Empire.{{sfn|Fine|1991|p=72}}<ref name="fine127"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=268–269}}</ref> The new religion dealt a crushing blow to the privileges of the old Bulgar aristocracy; also, by that time, many Bulgars were presumably speaking Slavic.<ref name="fine128"/> Boris I made it a national policy to use the doctrine of Christianity, that had neither Slavic nor Bulgar origin, to bind them together in a single culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=128–129}}</ref> As a result, by the end of the 9th century the Bulgarians had become a single Slavic nationality with ethnic awareness that was to survive in triumph and tragedy to present.<ref name="fine129"/> == Culture == The cultural heritage of the First Bulgarian Empire is usually defined in Bulgarian historiography as the Pliska-Preslav culture, named after the first two capitals, [[Pliska]] and [[Preslav]], where most of the surviving monuments are concentrated. Many monuments of that period have been found around [[Madara (village)|Madara]], [[Shumen]], [[Novi Pazar, Bulgaria|Novi Pazar]], the village of [[Han Krum (village)|Han Krum]] in north-eastern Bulgaria, and in the territory of modern Romania, where Romanian archaeologists called it the "[[Dridu culture]]".<ref name="angelov186">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=186}}</ref> Remains left by the First Empire have also been discovered in southern [[Bessarabia]], now divided between [[Ukraine]] and [[Moldova]], as well as in modern-day North Macedonia, Albania and Greece.<ref name="whittow293"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Чеботаренко|first=Г. Ф.|title=Материалы к археологической карте памятников VIII-Х вв. южной части Пруто-Днестровского междуречья//Далекое прошлое Молдавии|year=1969|location=Кишинев|pages=224–230}}</ref> A treatise of the 10th-century Bulgarian cleric and writer [[Cosmas the Priest]] describes a wealthy, book-owning and monastery-building Bulgarian elite, and the preserved material evidence suggests a prosperous and settled picture of Bulgaria.<ref name="stephenson25"/><ref name="whittow293"/> === Architecture === ==== Civil architecture ==== [[File:Museums in Veliki Preslav 12.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of the medieval landscape of Preslav]] The first capital, Pliska, initially resembled a huge encampment spanning an area of 23{{nbsp}}km² with the eastern and western sides measuring some 7{{nbsp}}km in length, the northern, 3.9&nbsp;km, and the southern, 2.7&nbsp;km. The whole area was encircled by a trench 3.5{{nbsp}}m wide in the foundation and 12{{nbsp}}m wide in the upper part and earthen escarpment with similar proportions{{snds}}12{{nbsp}}m wide in the foundation and 3.5{{nbsp}}m in the upper part.<ref name="angelov181">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=181}}</ref> The inner town measured 740{{nbsp}}m to the north and to the south, 788{{nbsp}}m to the west, and 612{{nbsp}}m to the east. It was protected by stone walls 10{{nbsp}}m high and 2.6{{nbsp}}m thick, constructed with large carved blocks.<ref name="angelov181"/> There were four gates, each protected by two pairs of quadrangular towers. The corners were protected by cylindrical towers and there were pentagonal towers between each corner and gate tower.<ref name="angelov181"/> The inner town harboured the Khan's palace, the temples, and the noble residences. The palace complex included baths, a pool and a heating system.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=181–182}}</ref> There were several inns, as well as numerous shops and workshops.<ref name="Angelov et al 1981 182">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=182}}</ref> [[File:Pliska-svik.jpg|left|thumb|alt=Medieval ruins|The ruins of [[Pliska]], the first capital of Bulgaria]] The Bulgarians also constructed forts with residences, called ''auls'', or fortified palaces, by contemporary Byzantine authors.<ref name="Angelov et al 1981 182"/> An example of this type of construction is the [[Palace of Omurtag|Aul of Omurtag]], mentioned in the Chatalar Inscription, which bears many similarities to Pliska, such as the presence of baths and the usage of monumental construction techniques with large carved limestone blocks.<ref name="angelov185">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=185}}</ref> Archaeologists have discovered a damaged lion statue that was originally 1 m in height and matches this description from an inscription: "In the field of Pliska staying he [Omurtag] made a court/camp (aulis) at [the river] Ticha&nbsp;... and skillfully erected a bridge at Ticha together with the camp [he put] four columns and above the columns he erected two lions."<ref name="angelov185"/> The same method of construction was employed in a fortress on the Danubian island of [[Păcuiul lui Soare]] (in modern Romania), where the gate is similar in plan to those at Pliska, Preslav and the Aul of Omurtag.<ref name="angelov185"/> The fortress of Slon, an important juncture that connected the salt mines of [[Transylvania]] with the lands to the south of the Danube, and constructed in the same manner, was located further north, on the southern slopes of the [[Carpathian Mountains]].<ref name="angelov186"/> The second capital, Preslav, covered an area of 5&nbsp;km² in the shape of irregular pentagon and, like Pliska, was divided into an inner and an outer town.<ref name="angelov296">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=296}}</ref> The city experienced an extensive construction programme under Simeon I who intended it to rival Constantinople. The inner town contained two palaces, referred to by archaeologists as the Western Palace and the Throne Hall, that were linked.<ref name="angelov296"/> Very few elements of the decoration have survived{{snds}} marble plates and two monolithic columns of green marble that probably enclosed the arch above the throne.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=296–297}}</ref> The whole complex was larger than the Pliska Palace and was walled with the bath adjoining the southern wall.<ref name="angelov297">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=297}}</ref> A ceremonial road covered with stone plates linked the northern gate and the palace complex and formed a spacious plaza in front of it.<ref name="angelov300">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=300}}</ref> The outer town housed estates, churches, monasteries, workshops and dwellings.<ref name="angelov297"/> Adjoined to the outer side of southern gates of the inner town there was a large trading edifice with 18 rooms for commerce on the first floor and accommodation rooms on the second.<ref name="angelov298"/> The most common plan of the commercial, artesian and residential monastic edifices was rectangular with the first floor being used for production, and the second one{{snds}} for living. Some of the buildings had marble or ceramic tile floors, and others had [[veranda]]s on the second floor.<ref name="angelov298"/> There were two types of plumbing{{snds}}made of masonry or of clay pipes that brought water from the mountains to the city.<ref name="angelov300"/> ==== Sacral architecture ==== {{multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 220 | footer = ''Above:'' [[Church of St. Sophia, Ohrid]] ''Below:'' Church of Our Lady, Kostur | image1 = Ohrid $ (7).JPG | alt1 = A medieval church | caption1 = | image2 = Kastoria Panagia Koumbelidiki.jpg | alt2 = A medieval church | caption2 = }} After the adoption of Christianity in 864, intensive construction of churches and monasteries began throughout the Empire. Many of them were erected over the old pagan temples.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=232}}</ref> The new sacral architecture altered the appearance of the cities and fortresses.<ref name="angelov233">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=233}}</ref> This construction was funded not only by the state but also through donations by the wealthy, known as ''[[ktitor]]s''.<ref name="angelov233"/> Among the first places of worship to be constructed after 864 was the [[Great Basilica of Pliska]]. It was one of the biggest structures of the time, as well as contemporary Europe's longest church, with a rectangular shape reaching 99{{nbsp}}m in length.<ref name="angelov427">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=427}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=129–130}}</ref> The basilica was divided into two almost equal parts{{snds}}a spacious [[atrium (architecture)|atrium]] and the main building.<ref name="angelov427"/> During the reign of Simeon{{nbsp}}I the domed [[cruciform]] type of church building was introduced and came to dominate the country's sacral architecture.<ref name="angelov300"/> Preslav was adorned with tens of churches and at least eight monasteries. The churches were decorated with ceramics, plastic elements and a variety of decorative forms.<ref name="angelov301">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=301}}</ref> The leading example of the city's ecclesiastic architecture is the splendid [[Round Church, Preslav|Round Church]]. It was a domed [[Rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]] with a two-tiered colonnade in the interior and a walled atrium with niches and columns.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=300–301}}</ref><ref name="kazhdan335">{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=335}}</ref> The style of the church had been influenced by [[Armenia]]n, [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Carolingian architecture]].<ref name="kazhdan335"/> There were also a number of cave monasteries, such as the [[Murfatlar Cave Complex]], where excavations have revealed stone relief murals and inscriptions in three alphabets{{snds}}Glagolitic, Cyrillic and Greek, as well as Bulgar runes.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=257}}</ref> In the region of [[Kutmichevitsa]] to the south-west, Clement of Ohrid oversaw the construction of the [[Saint Panteleimon, Ohrid|Monastery of Saint Panteleimon]] and two churches with "round and spherical form" in the late 9th century.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=232–233}}</ref> In 900 the [[Monastery of Saint Naum]] was established at the expense of "the pious Bulgarian Tsar Michael-Boris and his son Tsar Simeon" on the shores of [[Lake Ohrid]], some 30{{nbsp}}km to the south of the town, as a major literary centre.<ref name="angelov233"/> Other important buildings were the [[Church of St. Sophia, Ohrid|Church of Saint Sophia]] in Ohrid, and the Basilica of [[Achillius of Larissa|Saint Achillius]] on an island in [[Lake Prespa]], with dimensions of 30 х 50{{nbsp}}m, both modeled after the Great Basilica of Pliska.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=428}}</ref> These churches had three [[nave]]s and three [[apse]]s.<ref name="angelov427"/> Preserved edifices from that period evincing the rich and settled Bulgarian culture at the time include three small churches dated from the late 9th or early 10th centuries in [[Kastoria|Kostur]] and the church in the village of [[Agios Germanos|German]] (both in modern Greece).<ref name="whittow293"/> === Art === [[File:Caballero de Madara, reserva histórico-arqueológica Nacional de Madara, Bulgaria, 2016-05-27, DD 39.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A relief carving|The [[Madara Rider]]]] The most representative surviving monument is the [[Madara Rider]], a large carved relief commissioned by Khan Tervel following his triumph in 705. It is the only relief of its kind, having no parallel in Europe.<ref name="madara">{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/43|title=Madara Rider|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |publisher=UNESCO|access-date=11 February 2017}}</ref> The relief depicts a composition of a horseman, a lion and a dog at 23 m above ground level in an almost vertical 100 m-high cliff of the [[Madara Plateau]].<ref name="angelov309">{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=188}}</ref> All figures are in motion. The rider, facing right, is thrusting a spear into the lion, lying at his horse's feet, and on the left, the dog is running after the horseman.<ref name="angelov309"/> The carving of the horseman's halo and garments, as well the bird in front of the horseman's face, are barely recognizable due to erosion and the generally bad condition of the monument.<ref name="angelov309"/> The Madara Rider was included in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage List]] in 1979.<ref name="madara"/> [[File:Reliefs, First Bulgarian Epire.png|thumb|Early Christian reliefs]] The meaning and symbolism of the depiction is uncertain, as well its actual masonry tradition and cultural source.<ref name="Sophoulis83">{{harvnb|Sophoulis|2011|p=83}}</ref> The origin of the relief is connected with the Bulgar ethnogenesis{{snds}}the [[Eurasian nomads|semi-nomadic equestrian warrior]] culture from the [[Eurasian Steppe]].<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=190}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Donchev |first=Slavi |title=The Madara Horseman |url=http://www.icomos.org/monumentum/vol23-24/vol23-24_6.pdf|volume=23–24 |date=1981|publisher=[[International Council on Monuments and Sites|ICOMOS]]|pages=41–42}}</ref> The Madara Rider bears resemblance to the Persian [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] rock [[relief]] tradition.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|pp=334–335}}</ref><ref name="Sophoulis83"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Donchev |first=Slavi |title=The Madara Horseman |url=http://www.icomos.org/monumentum/vol23-24/vol23-24_6.pdf|volume=23–24 |date=1981|publisher=[[International Council on Monuments and Sites|ICOMOS]]|page=41}}</ref> The hero-horseman is also a common character of Turko-Altaic and [[Alans|Alanic]] mythology.<ref name="Sophoulis83"/> It is sometimes believed that the horseman represents or is related to the Bulgar deity Tangra, while Russian philologist [[Vladimir Toporov]] related it to the Iranian deity [[Mithra]].<ref name="Sophoulis83"/> Some considered it an example of the [[Thracian horseman]]{{snds}}a recurring motif of a deity in the form of a horseman in the [[Paleo-Balkanic mythology]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Donchev |first=Slavi |title=The Madara Horseman |url=http://www.icomos.org/monumentum/vol23-24/vol23-24_6.pdf|volume=23–24 |date=1981|publisher=[[International Council on Monuments and Sites|ICOMOS]]|page=43}}</ref> Sculpture and stone carving were well-developed enough to supply the demand for public and sacral buildings. Many examples of marble carving have been excavated in Preslav. The decorations have included animals such as [[griffin]]s, rabbits and birds, as well as vegetative elements (most often [[palmette]]s and grape leaves) and geometric motifs.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=307–308}}</ref> There were also three-dimensional animal figures discovered in church No. 1 in Preslav, including heads of lions and lionesses.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=308}}</ref> === Ceramics === [[File:Saint Theodore (Ceramic icon).jpg|thumb|Ceramic icon of [[Theodore of Amasea|Saint Theodore]], Preslav ceramics, {{Circa|900}}.]] The main sources for Bulgarian domestic use-oriented [[pottery]] are the [[necropolis|necropoleis]] at Novi Pazar, [[Devnya]], and [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]].<ref name="angelov309"/> The vessels were made with a [[potter's wheel]], unlike Slavic practice. Since the 9th century two-story ovens were used for the annealing of the pottery.<ref name="angelov309"/> The shape and decoration of early Bulgarian pottery was similar to that found in northern [[Caucasus]], the [[Crimea]], and the shores of the [[Sea of Azov]]. The growing exchange with the Byzantine Empire following the adoption of Christianity led to an increase in the shapes and decorations of Bulgarian pottery that was unprecedented in the Slavic world.<ref name="angelov309"/> One of the most famous features of the Pliska-Preslav culture was the decoration of palaces and churches with lacquered ceramic plates, which may indicate a Near Eastern (Arabic) influence.<ref name="kazhdan335"/> They were produced of white clay, known also as [[Kaolinite|kaolin]].<ref name="angelov301"/> In the 10th century the ceramic workshops in and around Preslav produced high quality ceramic tiles in the so-called "Preslav style" that were widely used in monumental construction projects and were also exported abroad.<ref name="fine133"/> Many of them were marked with Cyrillic or Glagolitic letters on the rear side.<ref name="angelov309"/> Archaeologists have discovered tile of that style in Kiev, showing Bulgarian influences in Kievan Rus.<ref name="fine187"/> The ceramic plates were painted mostly to include geometric or vegetative elements and sometimes birds. Some had depictions of the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin]], saints and apostles, both in full figures, portraits and medallions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=2084}}</ref> Due to the destruction of Pliska and Preslav, only fragments and details of the ceramic decoration have survived. Among the most notable of those is the well-preserved, 20-tile ''Icon of St Theodore'', found in the ruins of the [[Patleina Monastery]] of Saint Panteleimon in the outskirts of Preslav which was the site of one of the workshops.<ref name="kazhdan335"/><ref name="angelov309"/> The extensive use of ceramic decoration in Preslav and the nearby churches and monasteries most probably pre-dates its widespread use in Constantinople.<ref name="kazhdan335"/> == Literature == === Creation of the Slavic writing system === {{see also|Old Church Slavonic|Glagolitic alphabet|Cyrillic script}} [[File:Old Bulgarian Alphabet.png|thumb|alt=An alphabet|The [[Early Cyrillic Alphabet|Old Bulgarian alphabet]]]] Although Boris{{nbsp}}I had succeeded in securing an autonomous Church, the higher clergy and theological books were still in Greek, which impeded his efforts to convert the populace to the new religion. Between 860 and 863 the Byzantine monks [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]] created the [[Glagolitic alphabet]], the first Slavic alphabet, by order of the Byzantine Emperor, who aimed to convert [[Great Moravia]] to Orthodox Christianity.<ref name="whittow284"/><ref name="fine113">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=113}}</ref> The language they used was called by later historians [[Old Church Slavonic]] and was based on the local Slavic dialect spoken in the region of [[Thessaloniki]],<ref name="fine113"/> and hence it is also known as Old Bulgarian. Ultimately, the brothers' mission to establish Slavic liturgy in Great Moravia failed.<ref name="Fine 1991 114">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=114}}</ref> In 886 their disciples [[Clement of Ohrid|Clement]], [[Saint Naum|Naum]] and Angelarius, who had been banished from Great Moravia, reached Bulgaria and received a warm welcome from Boris I.<ref name="fine127"/> They began to preach in Bulgaria and thus the work of the Slavic mission of Cyril and Methodius was saved.<ref name="fine127"/> The Bulgarian monarch commissioned the creation of two theological academies to be headed by the disciples where they were to instruct the future Bulgarian clergy in Bulgarian vernacular. Clement was sent to the southwestern province of [[Kutmichevitsa]] in Macedonia, where he founded the [[Ohrid Literary School]]. There, he educated 3,500 pupils between 886 and 907.<ref name="fine128"/><ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=255}}</ref> Naum established the literary school in the capital Pliska, which moved later to the new capital Preslav. Eventually, Naum too was sent to Ohrid.<ref name="fine128"/> The rationale to centre the literary activities far away from the capital was that at the time a Byzantine archbishop still resided in Pliska.<ref name="fine128"/> In the late 9th or the early 10th century the [[Cyrillic script]] was created at the [[Preslav Literary School]].<ref name="fine136">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=136}}</ref> It was based on the Greek alphabet and included 14 original letters for sounds that were non-existent in Greek, making an alphabet of 38 letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=258}}</ref> In the next few decades the new script replaced the Glagolitic alphabet in Bulgaria and eventually spread to the whole Eastern Orthodox Slavic world.<ref name="fine136"/> Today more than 250 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. === Literary activities === {{main|Medieval Bulgarian literature}} [[File:DidacticGospelAlphabetPrayerConstantinePreslavski.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A page of a medieval manuscript|A page with the ''Alphabet Prayer'' by [[Constantine of Preslav]]]] The development of Old Church Slavonic literacy had the effect of preventing the assimilation of the [[South Slavs]] into neighbouring cultures, while stimulating the formation of the distinct Bulgarian identity.<ref>{{cite book|last=Poulton|first=Hugh|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbuavUZKEwC&q=who+are+the+macedonians|title=Who are the Macedonians|publisher=Hurst & Co. Publishers|year=2000|isbn=1-85065-534-0|pages=19–20}}</ref> Initially translation from Byzantine Greek of texts on theology, history and geography was a priority.<ref name="kazhdan336">{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=336}}</ref> Literary activities flourished during the reign of Simeon{{nbsp}}I, who had a personal interest in literature.<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|p=295}}</ref><ref name="Fine 1991 114"/> He gathered many scholars in the court who translated an enormous number of books from Greek and wrote many new works. Among the most prominent figures were [[Constantine of Preslav]], [[John the Exarch]] and [[Chernorizets Hrabar]], who is believed by some historians to have been Simeon{{nbsp}}I himself. They wrote [[Hagiography|hagiographies]], [[panegyric]]s, [[acolouthia]], poetry, liturgical hymns, treatises on church music, etc.<ref name="kazhdan336"/> One of the first original works was ''On the Letters'' (''О писмєньхъ'') by Chernorizets Hrabar, where he defended the Cyrillic alphabet against its Byzantine Greek critics and proved not only its right to existence but also its superiority to the [[Greek alphabet]], arguing that the Greek letters were neither the oldest known to man, nor divine.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|pp=134–136}}</ref> In the form of rhetorical questions and answers ''On the Letters'' demonstrated the excellent historic and linguistic knowledge of its author, as he indicated that "God did not first create the Hebrew or the Greek language, but Syrian which Adam spoke..."<ref name="fine135">{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=135}}</ref> and underlined that "Before then the Greeks had no alphabet of their own but wrote their speech with [[Phoenicia]]n letters."<ref name="fine135"/> Constantine of Preslav and John the Exarch combined translated and adapted Byzantine works with original texts.<ref name="kazhdan336"/> The latter compiled the ''Shestodnev'' (''Шестоднев'' – [[Hexameron]]) that included valuable first-hand evidence about the Bulgarian Empire under Simeon I. Constantine of Preslav's ''Didactic Gospel'' was the first systematic work on sermons in Slavic literature; it also featured the poetic preface ''Azbuchna molitva'' (''Азбучна молитва'' – Alphabet Prayer), the first original poetry in the Bulgarian language. Later, [[Cosmas the Priest]] wrote the anti-Bogomil treatise ''Sermon Against the Heretics'' which, apart from the theological arguments, criticized contemporary Bulgarian society, particularly on religious and social issues.<ref>{{harvnb|Andreev|Lazarov|Pavlov|1999|p=210}}</ref> Apart from the official literature, [[Apocrypha|apocryphal texts]] were also written and gained popularity after the second half of the 10th century, as imperial patronage ceased during the Byzantine conquest and subsequent Byzantine rule in Bulgaria.<ref name="kazhdan336"/> One such work expressing the Bulgarian aspirations and fears was ''Tale of the Cross Tree'' by [[Jeremiah (Bulgarian priest)|Jeremiah the Priest]] that was banned by the Orthodox Church as heresy.<ref name="kazhdan336"/> The flourishing literary activity and the experimentation with various genres developed the style, flexibility and expressiveness of the language.<ref name="kazhdan336"/> The literature produced in the Old Bulgarian language soon spread north and became the [[lingua franca]] of the Balkans and Eastern Europe.{{sfn|Schenker|2014|pp=185–186, 189–190}}{{sfn|Fortson|2004|p=374}} Bulgarian scholars and works influenced most of the Slavic world, including [[Kievan Rus']], [[medieval Serbia]], and [[Medieval Croatian state (disambiguation)|medieval Croatia]], as well as the non-Slavic medieval [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]].<ref>{{harvnb|Angelov et al|1981|pp=260–261}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kazhdan|1991|p=337}}</ref> This thriving activity came to an abrupt end with the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria. In the following 150 years the Byzantines systematically destroyed all texts in Old Bulgarian language.<ref name="fine220">{{Harvnb|Fine|1991|p=220}}</ref> None of the works of the First Empire have survived in original within its territory and those that have survived are later copies reproduced abroad, mainly in Russia.<ref name="fine220"/> == See also == {{div col|colwidth=27em}} * [[Old Great Bulgaria]] * [[Second Bulgarian Empire]] * [[Thracians]] * [[Byzantine–Bulgarian wars]] * [[Bulgarian–Hungarian wars]] * [[Bulgarian–Serbian wars (medieval)|Bulgarian–Serbian wars]] * [[Croatian–Bulgarian wars]] * [[1300th Anniversary of the Bulgarian State]] * [[List of Bulgarian monarchs]] * [[Medieval Bulgarian army]] * [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]] * [[Old Church Slavonic]] * [[Cyrillic alphabet]] * [[Bulgarian lands across the Danube]] * [[Balkan–Danubian culture]] {{div col end}} == Notes == {{Cnote2 Begin|liststyle=upper-alpha}} {{Cnote2|a|Also known as Old Bulgarian.}} {{Cnote2|b|Boris I abdicated in 889 and retired to a monastery. After deposing Vladimir he returned to his monastery, where he died in 907.}} {{Cnote2|c|Boris II died childless and Roman was [[castration|castrated]] by the Byzantines to ensure the end of the [[Krum's dynasty]]. Thus, there was no threat for Samuel to establish his own dynasty.<ref>{{harvnb|Fine|1991|p=189}}</ref>}} {{Cnote2|d|The author envisions the soldier-emperor [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] (r. 963–969), whom he greatly admired.<ref name="gibiV320"/>}} {{Cnote2 End}} == Citations == {{Reflist|30em}} == Sources == === Primary === * {{cite book | title = Гръцки извори за българската история (ГИБИ), том III (Greek Sources about Bulgarian History (GIBI), volume III) | url=http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/3/index.html | last = Колектив (Collective) | year = 1960 | language = bg, el | publisher = Издателство на БАН ([[Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]] Press) | location = София (Sofia) | access-date =17 February 2017}} * {{cite book | title = Гръцки извори за българската история (ГИБИ), том IV (Greek Sources about Bulgarian History (GIBI), volume IV) | url=http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/4/index.html | last = Колектив (Collective) | year = 1961 | language = bg, el | publisher = Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press) | location = София (Sofia) | access-date =17 February 2017}} * {{cite book | title = Гръцки извори за българската история (ГИБИ), том V (Greek Sources about Bulgarian History (GIBI), volume V) | url=http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/5/index.html | last = Колектив (Collective) | year = 1964 | language = bg, el | publisher = Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press) | location = София (Sofia) | access-date =17 February 2017}} * {{cite book | title = Гръцки извори за българската история (ГИБИ), том VI (Greek Sources about Bulgarian History (GIBI), volume VI) | url=http://www.promacedonia.org/gibi/6/index.html | last = Колектив (Collective) | year = 1965 | language = bg, el | publisher = Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press) | location = София (Sofia) | access-date =17 February 2017}} * {{cite book | title = Латински извори за българската история (ГИБИ), том III (Latin Sources about Bulgarian History (GIBI), volume III) | url=http://www.promacedonia.org/libi/3/index.html | last = Колектив (Collective) | year = 1965 | language = bg, la | publisher = Издателство на БАН (Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Press) | location = София (Sofia) | access-date =17 February 2017}} === Secondary === {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Andreev|Lalkov|1996}} | title = Българските ханове и царе (The Bulgarian Khans and Tsars) | last1 = Андреев (Andreev) | first1 = Йордан (Jordan) | first2= Милчо (Milcho) |last2= Лалков (Lalkov) | year = 1996 | language = bg | publisher = Абагар (Abagar) | location = Велико Търново ([[Veliko Tarnovo]]) | isbn = 954-427-216-X }} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Andreev|Lazarov|Pavlov|1999}} | title = Кой кой е в средновековна България | trans-title = Who is Who in Medieval Bulgaria | last1 = Андреев (Andreev) | first1 = Йордан (Jordan) | first2 = Иван (Ivan) | last2 = Лазаров (Lazarov) | first3 = Пламен (Plamen) | last3 = Павлов (Pavlov) | year = 1999 | language = bg | publisher = Петър Берон (Petar Beron) | isbn = 978-954-402-047-7 }} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Angelov|1971}} |last = Ангелов (Angelov) |first = Димитър (Dimitar) |title = Образуване на българската народност (Formation of the Bulgarian Nationality) |url = http://www.promacedonia.org/da/index.html |publisher = Наука и изкуство (Nauka i izkustvo) |location = София (Sofia) |year = 1971 |language = bg }} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Angelov et al|1981}} | title = История на България. Том II. Първа българска държава | trans-title = History of Bulgaria. Volume II. 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A Political Study of the Northern Balkans, 900–1204 | last = Stephenson | first = Paul | year = 2004 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | isbn = 0-511-03402-4 }} * {{cite book | title = Български хроники (Bulgarian Chronicles) | last = Цанев (Tsanev) | first = Стефан (Stefan) | publisher = Труд (Trud), Жанет 45 (Zhanet 45) | language = bg | year = 2006 | location = София (Sofia), Пловдив ([[Plovdiv]]) | isbn = 954-528-610-5 }} * {{cite book | title = The Making of Byzantium (600–1025) | last = Whittow | first = Mark | author-link = Mark Whittow | year = 1996 | publisher = [[University of California Press]] | location = [[Los Angeles]] | isbn = 0-520-20497-2 }} * {{cite book |first=Daniel |last=Ziemann |title=Das Erste bulgarische Reich. Eine frühmittelalterliche Großmacht zwischen Byzanz und Abendland |language=de |trans-title=The First Bulgarian Empire. An early medieval great power between Byzantium and the Occident |series=Online handbook on the history of South-East Europe. Volume I: ''Rule and politics in Southeastern Europe until 1800'' |publisher=Institute for East and Southeast European Studies of the [[Leibniz Association]] |place=Regensburg |year=2016 |url=https://hgsoe.ios-regensburg.de/fileadmin/doc/texte/Band1/Ziemann_Das_Erste_Bulgarische_Reich.pdf}} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Zlatarski|1970}} |last = Златарски (Zlatarski) |first = Васил (Vasil) |author-link = Vasil Zlatarski |title = История на българската държава през средните векове. Том I. История на Първото българско царство. Част І. (History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages. Volume I. History of the First Bulgarian Empire. Part I.) |url = http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1a/index.html |edition = 2nd |publisher = Наука и изкуство (Nauka i izkustvo) |location = София (Sofia) |year = 1970 |orig-year = 1918 |language = bg |oclc = 67080314 }} * {{cite book | ref={{harvid|Zlatarski|1972}} |last = Златарски (Zlatarski) |first = Васил (Vasil) |title = История на българската държава през средните векове. Том I. История на Първото българско царство. Част ІІ. (History of the Bulgarian state in the Middle Ages. Volume I. History of the First Bulgarian Empire. Part II) |url = http://www.promacedonia.org/vz1b/index.html |edition = 2nd |publisher = Наука и изкуство (Nauka i izkustvo) |location = София (Sofia) |year = 1972 |orig-year = 1927 |language = bg |oclc = 67080314 }} {{Refend}} == External links == *{{commons category-inline|First Bulgarian Empire|'''First Bulgarian Empire'''}} {{Bulgarian Empire}} {{Bulgaria topics}} {{Barbarian kingdoms}} {{Empires}} {{Middle Ages|collapsed}} {{Portal bar|Bulgaria|Middle Ages|Christianity}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:First Bulgarian Empire| ]] [[Category:Former countries in the Balkans|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:Former monarchies of Europe|Bulgarian 01]] [[Category:Medieval Bulgaria|First Bulgarian Empire]] [[Category:7th century in Bulgaria|.]] [[Category:8th century in Bulgaria|.]] [[Category:9th century in Bulgaria|.]] [[Category:10th century in Bulgaria|.]] [[Category:11th century in Bulgaria]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 680s|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1018|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:681 establishments|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:1018 disestablishments in Europe|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:Romania in the Early Middle Ages|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:Moldova in the Early Middle Ages|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:Medieval Albania]] [[Category:Medieval Macedonia|Bulgarian Empire 01]] [[Category:Christian states]] [[Category:Former countries]] [[Category:Former empires]]'